The Context of Scripture
VOLUME I
Canonical Compositions from
the Biblical World
Editor
WILLIAM W. HALLO
Associate Editor
K. LAWSON YOUNGER, JR.
Consultants
HARRY A. HOFFNER, JR.
ROBERT K. RITNER
BRILL
LEIDEN • NEW YORK • KÖLN
1997
Cover: “Man and his God” (Text 179) lines 97–112, on a tablet from the collections of the University Museum, University of Pensylvania (CBS 15205), published by Samuel Noah kramer in M. noth & D. Winston Thomas (eds.), Wisdom in Israel and in the Ancient Near East (FS H.H. Rowley; VTS 3; Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1960), Pl. iv (opp. p. 175).
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
The context of Scripture / editor, William W. Hallo; associate editor, K. Lawson Younger.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographic references and index.
Contents: V. I. Canonical compositions from the biblical world.
ISBN 9004106189
I. Bible. O.T.—Extra-canonical parallels. 2. Middle Eastern literature—Relation to the Old Testament. 3. Bible. O.T.—History of comtemporary events—Sources. 4. Middle Eastern literature—Translations into English. I. Hallo, William W. II. Younger, K. Lawson.
BS1180.C66 1996
220.9´5—dc21 96–48987
CIP
Die Deutsche Bibliothek – CIP-Einheitsaufnahme
The context of scripture: canonical compositions, monumental inscriptions, and archival documents from the biblical world / ed. William W. Hallo. – Leiden; New York; Köln: Brill
NE: Hallo, William W. [Hrsg.]
Vol. I Canonical compositions from the biblical world. — 1997
ISBN 90–04–10618–9
ISBN 90 04 10618 9 (Vol. I)
ISBN 90 04 09629 9 (Set)
© Copyright 1997 by Koninklijke Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher.
Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910 Danvers MA, 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change.
CONTENTS
Preface
Acknowledgements
Abbreviations and Symbols
List of Contributors
Introduction: Ancient Near Eastern Texts and their Relevance for Biblical Exegesis
EGYPTIAN CANONICAL COMPOSITIONS
DIVINE FOCUS
1. COSMOLOGIES
From the “Book of Nut” (1.1)
From Coffin Texts Spell 714 (1.2)
From Pyramid Texts Spell 527 (1.3)
From Pyramid Texts Spell 600 (1.4)
From Coffin Texts Spell 75 (1.5)
From Coffin Texts Spell 76 (1.6)
From Coffin Texts Spell 78 (1.7)
From Coffin Texts Spell 80 (1.8)
From Papyrus Bremner-Rhind (1.9)
From Coffin Texts Spell 335 = Book of the Dead Spell 17 (1.10)
Coffin Texts Spell 261 (1.11)
From Coffin Texts Spell 647 (1.12)
From a Ramesside Stela (1.13)
From the Berlin “Hymn to Ptah” (1.14)
From the “Memphite Theology” (1.15)
From Papyrus Leiden I 350 (1.16)
From Coffin Texts Spell 1130 (1.17)
Book of the Dead 175 (1.18)
Coffin Text 157 (1.19)
Book of the Dead 112 (1.20)
2. OTHER MYTHS
The Repulsing of the Dragon (1.21)
The Legend of Isis and the Name of Re (1.22)
The Legend of Astarte and the Tribute of the Sea (1.23)
The Destruction of Mankind (1.24)
3. HYMNS
The Great Cairo Hymn of Praise to Amun-Re (1.25)
The Great Hymn to Osiris (1.26)
Two Hymns to the Sun–god (1.27)
The Great Hymn to Aten (1.28)
4. PRAYERS
Prayer to Re-Harakhti (1.29)
5. HARPERS’ SONGS
The Song from the Tomb of King Intef (1.30)
The Song from the Tomb of Neferhotep (1.31)
6. DIVINATION, INCANTATION, RITUAL
Execration Texts (1.32)
Dream Oracles (1.33)
Daily Ritual of the Temple of Amun-Re at Karnak (1.34)
ROYAL FOCUS
1. INSTRUCTIONS
Merikare (1.35)
Amenemhet (1.36)
2. HISTORIOGRAPHY
King Lists (1.37)
1. Karnak List (1.37A)
2. Abydos List (1.37B)
3. Sakkara King List (SL) (1.37C)
4. Turin Canon (1.37D)
INDIVIDUAL FOCUS
1. NARRATIVES
Sinuhe (1.38)
The Shipwrecked Sailor (1.39)
The Two Brothers (1.40)
The Report of Wenamun (1.41)
2. “PROPHECY”
The Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage: the Admonitions of Ipuwer (1.42)
The Eloquent Peasant (1.43)
The Complaints of Khakheperrē-Sonb (1.44)
The Prophecies of Neferti (1.45)
3. INSTRUCTIONS
Instruction of Any (1.46)
Instruction of Amenemope (1.47)
Dua-khety or the Satire on the Trades (1.48)
4. LOVE POEMS
Papyrus Harris 500 (1.49)
Cairo Love Songs (1.50)
Papyrus Chester Beatty I (1.51)
Ostracon Gardiner 304 (1.52)
5. PSEUDEPIGRAPHA
The Famine Stela (1.53)
The Legend of the Possessed Princess (“Bentresh Stela”) (1.54)
EGYPTIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY
HITTITE CANONICAL COMPOSITIONS
DIVINE FOCUS
1. MYTHS
Elkuniršaand Ašertu (1.55)
The Storm-god and the Serpent (Illuyanka) (1.56)
The Wrath of Telipinu (1.57)
Appu and his Two Sons (1.58)
The Sun God and the Cow (1.59)
2. PRAYERS
Plague Prayers of MuršiliII (1.60)
3. RITUALS
The “Ritual Between the Pieces” (1.61)
Puliša’s Ritual Against Plague (1.62)
Uḫḫamuwa’s Ritual Against Plague (1.63)
Zarpiya’s Ritual (1.64)
Ritual and Prayer to Ishtar of Nineveh (1.65)
The First Soldiers’ Oath (1.66)
The Second Soldiers’ Oath (1.67)
4. INCANTATIONS
Purifying a House: a Ritual for the Infernal Deities (1.68)
The Storm God at Liḫzina (1.69)
Establishing a New Temple for the Goddess of the Night (1.70)
ROYAL FOCUS
1. EPIC
The Queen of Kanesh and the Tale of Zalpa (1.71)
2. HISTORIOGRAPHY
Proclamation of Anitta of Kuššar (1.72)
Crossing of the Taurus (1.73)
Deeds of Suppiluliuma (1.74)
The Hittite Conquest of Cyprus: Two Inscriptions of Suppiluliuma II (1.75)
3. BIOGRAPHY AND AUTOBIOGRAPHY
The Proclamation of Telipinu (1.76)
Apology of ḪattušiliIII (1.77)
4. ORACLES
Excerpt from an Oracle Report (1.78)
Assuring the Safety of the King during the Winter (1.79)
INDIVIDUAL FOCUS
1. PROVERBS
Hittite Proverbs (1.80)
2. OTHER WISDOM LITERATURE
Fragment of a Wisdom Text (?) (1.81)
Excerpt from the Hurro-Hittite Bilingual Wisdom Text (1.82)
3. INSTRUCTIONS
Instructions to Priests and Temple Officials (1.83)
Instructions to Commanders of Border Garrisons (1.84)
Instructions to the Royal Guard (1.85)
HITTITE BIBLIOGRAPHY
WEST SEMITIC CANONICAL COMPOSITIONS
DIVINE FOCUS
1. UGARITIC MYTHS
The BaʿluMyth (1.86)
Dawn and Dusk (1.87)
2. PRAYERS
Ugaritic Prayer for a City Under Siege (1.88)
The Prayer of Nabonidus (4QPrNab) (1.89)
3. DIVINATION
Ugaritic Birth Omens (1.90)
Ugaritic Lunar Omens (1.91)
Ugaritic Extispicy (1.92)
Ugaritic Dream Omens (1.93)
4. INCANTIONS AND RITUALS
Ugaritic Liturgy Against Venomous Reptiles (1.94)
Ugaritic Rites for the Vintage (KTU1.41//1.87) (1.95)
Ugaritic Incantation Against Sorcery (1.96)
ʾIluon a Toot (1.97)
A Punic Sacrificial Tariff (1.98)
The Aramaic Text in Demotic Script (1.99)
A Ugaritic Incantation Against Serpents and Sorcerers (1.100)
The London Medical Papyrus (1.101)
ROYAL FOCUS
1. EPIC
The Kirta Epic (1.102)
The ʾAqhatuLegend (1.103)
2. HISTORIOGRAPHY
Ugaritic King List (1.104)
3. REPHAʾIMTEXTS
The Patrons of the Ugaritic Dynasty (KTU1.161) (1.105)
INDIVIDUAL FOCUS
1. INSTRUCTIONS
Hippiatric Texts (1.106)
2. SCHOOL TEXTS
Abecedaries (1.107)
WEST SEMITIC BIBLIOGRAPHY
AKKADIAN CANONICAL COMPOSITIONS
DIVINE FOCUS
1. MYTHS
The Descent of Ishtar to the Underworld (1.108)
Nergal and Ereshkigal (1.109)
Nergal and Ereshkigal (Amarna Version) (1.110)
Epic of Creation (1.111)
The Theogony of Dunnu (1.112)
Erra and Ishum (1.113)
2. HYMNS AND PRAYERS
Prayer to Marduk (1.114)
Prayer to Gods of the Night (1.115)
Diurnal Prayers of Diviners (1.116)
The Shamash Hymn (1.117)
3. LAMENTATIONS AND ELEGIES
A Neo-Babylonian Lament for Tammuz (1.118)
An Assyrian Elegy (1.119)
4. DIVINATION
Mesopotamian Omens (1.120)
5. INCANTATIONS
Old Babylonian Incantation Against Cattle Disease (1.121)
6. RITUALS
Rituals from Emar
The Installation of the Storm God’s High Priestess (1.122)
The ZukruFestival (1.123)
Six Months of Ritual Supervision by the Diviner (1.124)
Two Months Joined by the Underworld, with Barring and Opening of Doors (1.125)
Two KissuFestivals (1.126)
A Psephomancy Ritual from Assur (1.127)
6. LOVE POEMS
Love Lyrics of Nabu and Tashmetu (1.128)
ROYAL FOCUS
1. EPIC
The Adapa Story (1.129)
Atra-Ḫasis (1.130)
Etana (1.131)
Gilgamesh (1.132)
The Birth Legend of Sargon of Akkad (1.133)
2. HISTORIOGRAPHY
Babylonian King Lists (1.134)
Assyrian King Lists (1.135)
Assyrian Eponym Canon (1.136)
Babylonian Chronicles (1.137)
The Weidner Chronicle (1.138)
3. ROYAL HYMNS
A Hymn Celebrating Assurnasirpal II’s Campaigns to the West (1.139)
A Prayer from a Coronation Ritual of the Time of Tukulti-Ninurta I (1.140)
A Hymn to Nanaya with a Blessing for Sargon II (1.141)
Assurbanipal’s Coronation Hymn (1.142)
An Assurbanipal Hymn for Shamash (1.143)
An Assurbanipal Prayer for Mullissu (1.144)
Dialogue between Assurbanipal and Nabu (1.145)
A Late Piece of Constructed Mythology Relevant to the Neo-Assyrian and Middle Assyrian Coronation Hymn and Prayer (1.146)
4. FICTIONAL ROYAL AUTOBIOGRAPHY
The Adad-guppi Autobiography (1.147)
The Autobiography of Idrimi (1.148)
The Marduk Prophecy (1.149)
The Dynastic Prophecy (1.150)
INDIVIDUAL FOCUS
1. JUST SUFFERER COMPOSITIONS
Dialogue between a Man and his God (1.151)
A Sufferer’s Salvation (1.152)
The Poem of the Righteous Sufferer (1.153)
The Babylonian Theodicy (1.154)
2. DIALOGUE
Dialogue of Pessimism or the Obliging Slave (1.155)
3. HUMOROUS TEXTS
“At the Cleaners” (1.156)
AKKADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY
SUMERIAN CANONICAL COMPOSITIONS
DIVINE FOCUS
1. MYTHS
The Song of the Hoe (1.157)
The Eridu Genesis (1.158)
Enki and Ninmaḫ (1.159)
The Exaltation of Inanna (1.160)
Inanna and Enki (1.161)
2. HYMNS
To Nanshe (1.162)
The Blessing of Nisaba by Enki (1.163)
3. PRAYERS AND LETTER-PRAYERS
Letter-Prayer of King Sin-Iddinam to Nin-Isina (1.164)
Letter-Prayer of King Sin-Iddinam to Utu (1.165)
4. LAMENTATIONS
Lamentation over the Destruction of Ur (1.166)
5. INCANTATIONS
A “Non-Canonical” Incantation (1.167)
From “Evil Spirits” (1.168)
6. LOVE POEMS
Dumuzi-Inanna Songs (1.169)
The Women’s Oath (1.169A)
Bridegroom, Spend the Night in our House Till Dawn (1.169B)
Love by the Light of the Moon (1.169C)
ROYAL FOCUS
1. EPIC
Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta (1.170)
Gilgamesh and Akka (1.171)
2. ROYAL HYMNS
The Birth of Shulgi in the Temple of Nippur (1.172)
The Sacred Marriage of Iddin-Dagan and Inanna (1.173)
INDIVIDUAL FOCUS
1. PROVERBS
Sumerian Proverb Collection 3 (1.174)
Proverbs Quoted in Other Genres (1.175)
2. INSTRUCTIONS
Shuruppak (1.176)
Ur-Ninurta (1.177)
3. FABLES
The Heron and the Turtle (1.178)
4. PIOUS SUFFERER COMPOSITIONS
“Man and his God” (1.179)
5. DISPUTATIONS
The Disputation Between Ewe and Wheat (1.180)
The Disputation Between the Hoe and the Plow (1.181)
The Disputation Between Bird and Fish (1.182)
The Disputation Between Summer and Winter (1.183)
6. SCHOOL DIALOGUES
The Dialogue Between Two Scribes (1.184)
The Dialogue Between a Supervisor and a Scribe (1.185)
The Dialogue Between an Examiner and a Student (1.186)
SUMERIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY
PREFACE
The genesis of this project may be said to lie in the four Summer Seminars for College Teachers which the undersigned conducted under the auspices of the National Endowment for the Humanities at Yale in 1978, 1980, 1987 and 1990. In these, I sought to salvage what was worthwhile of the older comparative approach to biblical history and literature by replacing it with the more nuanced “contextual approach.” Nearly fifty papers by the participating scholars resulted from these seminars, and most of them were published, together with my introductory essays, in the four volumes that go under the general title of Scripture in Context. The fourth of these volumes was edited by K. Lawson Younger, Jr., who had written and published his doctoral dissertation at Sheffield.2 He was in contact with David Orton at the very time that Dr. Orton was moving from Sheffield to Leiden to take up the post of Senior Editor (Religion) for E. J. Brill. At the same time (Spring 1991), I was spending a sabbatical in Leiden, so Orton sought me out at Younger’s suggestion to assess my interest in a major new project to bring ancient Near Eastern texts to bear on the study of biblical literature and history. I was interested in what promised to serve as a test of some of my long–held and long–taught methodologies: not only the contextual approach, but also my taxonomy of ancient documentation, and my theories of translation. I submitted a detailed proposal in which my conception of such a project was outlined. This became the basis of further discussions with Dr. Orton in Leiden, at the International Conference of the Society of Biblical Literature in Rome (1991), and the World Congress of Jewish Studies in Jerusalem (1993). At the last venue, in particular, I had the opportunity to test some of the proposals on a well informed and critical audience by presenting portions of what is now the introduction to the present volume. Trenchant advice was offered, i.a., by the late Jonas C. Greenfield.
After lengthy negotiations, a contract was signed and I then proceeded to secure the collaboration of Prof. Younger as Associate Editor. He has been a tower of strength to the project, lending his expertise in all matters relating to West Semitic and often enough to the other four sections as well. In addition, he prepared camera–ready copy of all the contributions. In matters Egyptian, I consulted my then Yale colleague Robert Ritner (now of the University of Chicago), and in matters Hittite, I benefitted from the wise counsel of Harry A. Hoffner, Jr. (University of Chicago).
My own task consisted in the first place of preparing the initial outline of texts to be translated. In their selection I was guided by a number of principles. Other things being equal (though they rarely are), preference was given to newly recovered or newly (re–)edited texts, though place was also made for some of the well–known older stand–bys; to texts able to be presented in their entirety; to well–preserved rather than fragmentary texts; and to texts whose relevance for biblical studies, by way either of comparison or of contrast, had been demonstrated or argued in the secondary literature. All four of these criteria were rarely met by any one text, and when they were, it was not always possible to find a translator for them.
On the whole, however, we consider ourselves fortunate in attracting so many of the leading talents in the field for this ambitious enterprise. All of them deserve unstinted thanks, with special credit to those recruited late in the day who thus had to meet tight deadlines (see the List of Contributors to Volume 1, below).
The aim was to provide the best and latest possible translations in every case. In a few instances this combination could be achieved only by reprinting previously published versions, and making special arrangements to this end. A list of the publishers who graciously cooperated in this regard follows this Preface.
To deal with so many contributors and publishers required the capable help of an administrative assistant furnished by the publisher in the person, initially, of Anne Folkertsma and, subsequently, of Mattie Kuiper. Thanks to the marvels of modern communication, it was possible to maintain almost instantaneous three–way contact among them and the three editors. But even the best mechanical devices are only as proficient as those who handle them, and Mesdames Folkertsma and Kuiper both performed to perfection. Without their steady ministrations, the project could not have reached its present milestone. A special tribute is due to David Orton, who not only conceived the project, but who lent it his unflagging support and provided experienced counsel at editorial meetings in Leiden (1992–96), and at SBL meetings in Chicago (1994) and Philadelphia (1995).
Some of the aids to the reader, notably the index, glossary, and gazetteer, are of necessity postponed to the third and concluding volume in the series. But it is hoped that even without them, the present initial volume will take its place as a vade mecum in the libraries of all those interested in the ancient Near East, its ongoing rediscovery, and its bearing on “The Context of Scripture.”
William W. Hallo
October 3, 1996
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The following publishers permitted the reprinting of portions of books:
Texts 1.24; 1.26; 1.27; 1.28; 1.30; 1.31; 1.35; 1.36; 1.38; 1.39; 1.40; 1.41; 1.46; 1.47; 1.48; 1.53; 1.54 (pp. 36–37, 41–46, 48–50, 61–68, 77–93, 110–125, 130–136): Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature. 3 Volumes. The University of California Press,© 1973–1980. Regents of The University of California.
Text 1.56 (pp. 150–151): Reprinted by permission of the editors of the Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Society 14 (1982).
Text 1.80 (p. 215): Reprinted from Journal of Near Eastern Studies. The University of Chicago Press.© 1986 by the University of Chicago. All rights reserved.
Text 1.99; 1.100 (pp. 309–327, 327–328): Reprinted from Journal of Near Eastern Studies 43 (1984) and 51 (1992) by permission of The University of Chicago Press.© 1984 and 1992 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved.
Texts 1.108; 1.109; 1.110; 1.113; 1.131 (pp. 381–391, 404–416, 453–457): © Stephanie Dalley 1989. Reprinted from Myths from Mesopotamia translated by Stephanie Dalley (1989) by permission of Oxford University Press.
Texts 1.111; 1.114; 1.115; 1.116; 1.117; 1.129; 1.130; 1.132; 1.133; 1.151; 1.152; 1.153; 1.154 (pp. 390–402, 416–419, 449–453, 461, 485–495): Translation is reprinted, with permission, from Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akkadian Literature by Benjamin R. Foster (CDL Press, 1993).
N.B. the explanatory material (introductions, biblical analogies and notes) is the work of the editors.
Texts 1.158; 1.170; 1.173 (pp. 511–513, 545–548, 552–557): Reprinted from Thorkild Jacobsen, The Harps that once … Sumerian Poetry in Translation (1987) by permission of Yale University Press.
Text 1.171 (pp. 548–550): Reprinted from D. Katz, Gilgamesh and Agga, Library of Oriental Texts 1 (1993) by permission of Styx Publications.
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
AA Archäologischer Anzeiger.
ÄA Ägyptologische Abhandlungen.
AAA Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology (University of Liverpool).
AAT Ägypten und Altes Testament.
AB Anchor Bible.
ABC A. K. Grayson. Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles. Locust Valley, NY: J. J. Augustin, 1975.
ABD D. N. Freedman, Editor. The Anchor Bible Dictionary. 5 Vols. New York: Doubleday, 1992.
ABL R. F. Harper. Assyrian and Babylonian Letters. London/Chicago, 1892–1914.
ACF Annuaire du Collège de France.
ACh C. Virolleaud. Astrologie Chaldéenne.
ActOr Acta Orientalia.
ActSum Acta Sumerologica.
ADAIK Abhandlungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Insti-tuts Kairo.
AEL M. Lichtheim. Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings. 3 vols. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California, 1973–1980.
AEO Ancient Egyptian Onomastica. Text. 2 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1947.
AfO Archiv für Orientforschung.
AGI Archivio Glottologico Italiano.
AHAW Abhandlungen der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften.
AHw W. von Soden. Akkadisches Handwörterbuch. Wiesbaden, 1959–1975.
AION Annali dell’ Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli
AIONSup Annali dell’ Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli, Supplemento
AJA American Journal of Archaeology
AJBI Annual of the Japanese Biblical Institute
AJSL American Journal of Semitic Languages
ALASP Abhandlungen zur Literatur Alt-Syrien-Palästinas. Münster: Ugarit–Verlag.
ALASP 1 M. Dietrich and O. Loretz. Die Keilalphabete. Die Phönizisch-kanaanäischen und altarabischen Alpha-bete in Ugarit. 1988.
ALASP 2 J. Tropper. Der ugaritische Kausativstamm und die Kausativbildungen des Semitischen. Eine morphologisch–semantische Untersuchung zum Š-Stamm und zu den umstrittenen nichtsibilantischen Kausativstämmen des Ugaritischen. 1990.
ALASP 3 M. Dietrich and O. Loretz. Mantik in Ugarit Keilalphabetische Texte der Opferschau — Omensammlungen — Nekromantie. Mit Beiträgen von H. W. Duerbeck, J.-W. Meyer, and W. C. Seitter. 1990.
ALASP 7 M. Dietrich and O. Loretz, Editors. Ugarit — ein ostmediterranes Kulturzentrum im Alten Orient. 1994.
AnBib Analecta Biblica.
ANET J. B. Pritchard, Editor. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. 3d ed. with supplement. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969.
AnOr Analecta Orientalia.
AnSt Anatolian Studies.
AO Aula Orientalis. Revista de estudios del próximo oriente antiguo.
AOAT (S) Alter Orient und Altes Testament (Sonderreihe).
AoF Altorientalische Forschungen.
AOS American Oriental Series.
AOSup Aula Orientalis Supplementa.
APAW Abhandlungen der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
ARAB D. D. Luckenbill. Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia. 2 Vols. Chicago, 1926–27.
Arch. Archaeologia.
ARI A. K. Grayson. Assyrian Royal Inscriptions. 2 Vols. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1972–76.
ARM (T) Archives royales de Mari (texts in transliteration and translation).
ArOr Archiv Orientální.
AS Assyriological Studies.
ASAE Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Égypte.
Asarh. R. Borger. Die Inschriften Asarhaddons Königs von Assyrien. AfO Beiheft 9. Graz: Ernst Weidner, 1956.
ASOR American Schools of Oriental Research.
ASORDS American Schools of Oriental Research Dissertation Series.
ASSF Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae.
Assur Assur. Monographic Journals of the Near East. Malibu: Undena, California.
Aspects A. Spalinger. Aspects of the Military Documents of the Ancient Egyptians. YNER 9. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1983.
ASTI Annual of the Swedish Theological Institute.
ATANT Abhandlungen zur Theologie des Alten und Neuen Testaments.
BA Biblical Archaeologist.
BAH Bibliothèque archéologique et historique.
BAL2 R. Borger. Babylonische-assyrische Lesestücke. 2nd ed. AnOr 54. Rome: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum, 1979.
BAM F. Köcher. Die babylonisch-assyrische Medizin in Texten und Untersuchungen. Berlin, 1963.
BaM Baghdader Mitteilungen.
BAR Biblical Archaeology Review.
BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research.
BASORSup Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Supplementary Studies.
BBVO Berliner Beiträge zum Vorderen Orient. Berlin.
BDB F. Brown, S. R. Driver and C. A. Briggs. A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament with an Appendix containing the Biblical Aramaic. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907.
BdÉ Bibliothèque d’étude.
BE Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania, Series A: Cuneiform Texts.
BeO Bibbia e oriente.
BES Brown Egyptological Studies.
BFOP Babylonian Fund Occasional Publications.
BHLT A. K. Grayson. Babylonian Historical-Literary Texts. Toronto and Buffalo, 1975.
BHS K. Elliger, W. Rudolph, et al., Editors. Biblica hebraica stuttgartensia. Stuttgart, 1977.
BIFAO Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale.
BiMes Bibliotheca Mesopotamica.
BiOr Bibliotheca Orientalis.
BJRL Bulletin of the John Rylands Library.
BJS Brown Judaic Studies.
BKAT Biblischer Kommentar: Altes Testament.
BM British Museum.
BM B. R. Foster. Before the Muses. 2nd edition. 2 vols. Bethesda, MD: CDL Press, 1996.
BMOP British Museum Occasional Paper. London: British Musuem.
Bo Inventory numbers of Boghazköy tablets excavated 1906–12.
BP William W. Hallo. The Book of the People. BJS 225. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1991.
BR Biblical Research. Chicago.
BSOAS Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies.
BSAg Bulletin of Sumerian Agriculture.
BTAVO Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients. Wiesbaden.
BTB Biblical Theology Bulletin.
BWANT Beiträge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten und Neuen Testament.
BWL W. G. Lambert. Babylonian Wisdom Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1960.
BZ Biblische Zeitschrift.
BZAW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft.
CAD A. L. Oppenheim, et al., Editors. The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 1956-.
CAH3 The Cambridge Ancient History. 3d ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973–75.
CANE J. M. Sasson, Editor. Civilizations of the Ancient Near East. 4 Vols. New York: Scribner, 1995.
CBC Cambridge Bible Commentary.
CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly.
CBQMS Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series.
CCT Cuneiform Texts from Cappadocian Tablets.
CdÉ Chronique d’Égypte.
CH R. F. Harper. The Code of Hammurabi.
CHD H. G. Güterbock and H. A. Hoffner, Jr., Editors. The Hittite Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 1989-
CIS Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum. Paris, 1881.
COS W. W. Hallo, Editor. The Context of Scripture. 3 Volumes. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997-.
CRAIBL Comptes rendus de l’Académie des inscriptions et belles lettres.
CT Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum.
CTA A. Herdner. Corpus des tablettes en cunéiformes alphabétiques découvertes à Ras Shamra–Ugarit de 1929 à 1939. Mission de Ras Shamra 10. BAH 79. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale; Geuthner, 1963.
CTH Laroche, E. Catalogue des textes hittites. Paris: Klincksieck, 1971.
DCPP E. Lipiński, et al., Editors. Dictionnaire de la Civilisation Phénicienne et Punique. Paris: Brepols.
DDD The Dictionary of Deities and Demons. Leiden: Brill.
DM Deir el-Medineh (Ostraca).
DNWSI J. Hoftijzer and K. Jongeling. Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions. Handbuch der Orientalistik 1/21. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1995.
DOTT D. Winton Thomas, Editor. Documents from Old Testament Times. London, 1958.
Dreams A. L. Oppenheim. The Interpretation of Dreams in the Ancient Near East, With a Translation of an Assyrian Dream–Book. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, n.s. 46/3. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society, 1956.
EA J. A. Knudtzon, et al., Editors. Die El-Amarna-Tafeln. Vorderasiatische Bibliothek 2. Leipzig, 1915.
EAK Einleitung in die assyrischen Königsinschriften. R. Borger, Vol. 1. W. Schramm, Vol. 2.
EI Eretz-Israel.
ELS P. Attinger. Elements de linguistique sumerienne. OBO, Sonderband. 1993.
Emar D. Arnaud. Recherches au pays d’Aštata, Emar VI.e: textes sumériens et accadiens, texte. Paris: Éditions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 1986.
EPRO Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l’empire Romain. Leiden.
Erl. K. Sethe. Erläuterung zu den aegyptischen Lesestücken. Leipzig, 1929.
Erra L. Cagni. L’Epopea de Erra. Studi semitici 34. Rome, 1969. Idem. The Poem of Erra. SANE 1/3. Malibu, 1977.
ERTR Egyptian Religious Texts and Representations.
EVO Egitto e Vicino Oriente.
FAOS Freiburger Altorientalische Studien.
FAT Forschungen zum Alten Testament.
FDD B. R. Foster. From Distant Days: Myths, Tales, and Poetry of Ancient Mesopotamia. Bethesda, MD: CDL Press, 1995.
FIFAO Fouilles de l’Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale.
FOTL R. Knierim and G. M. Tucker, Editors. The Forms of Old Testament Literature. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
FRLANT Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testament.
FTH A. R. Millard, et al., Editors. Faith, Tradition and History. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1994.
GAG W. von Soden. Grundriss der Akkadischen Grammatik. AnOr 33. Rome, 1952.
GM Göttinger Miszellen.
HAK H. Hunger. Babylonische und assyrische Kolophone. AOAT 2. Keukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1968.
HAE J. Renz and W. Röllig. Handbuch der Althebräischen Epigraphik. 3 Volumes. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1995.
HED J. Puhvel. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. 2 Vols. in 1. Berlin, 1984.
HHI H. Tadmor and M. Weinfeld. History, Historiography and Interpretation. Studies in Biblical and Cuneiform Literatures. Edited by H. Tadmor and M. Weinfeld. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, 1983.
Hiero. Texts British Museum. Hieroglyphic Texts from Egyptian Stelae, etc. 2nd ed. London, 1961-.
HKL R. Borger. Handbuch der Keilschriftliteratur. 3 Vols. Berlin, 1967–1973.
HO J. Černý and A. H. Gardiner. Hieratic Ostraca I. Oxford: Griffith Institute, 1957.
HPBM 2 E. A. W. Budge, Editor. Hieratic Papyri in the British Museum. 2nd series. London: British Museum, 1923.
HPBM 3 A. H. Gardiner. Hieratic Papyri in the British Museum. 3rd series. 2 Vols. London: British Museum, 1935.
HPKMB Hieratische Papyrus aus dem königlichen Museen zu Berlin.
HS Hebrew Studies.
HSM Harvard Semitic Monographs.
HSS Harvard Semitic Studies.
HT Hittite Texts in the Cuneiform Character in the British Museum. London, 1920.
HTR Harvard Theological Review.
HSAO D. O. Edzard, Editor. Heidelberger Studien zum alten Orient. Wiesbaden, 1967.
HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual.
HUCASup Hebrew Union College Annual, Supplements.
HW 1., 2., 3., Erg J. Friedrich. Hethitisches Wörterbuch. Heidelberg, 1952 (-54).
HW2 J. Friedrich and A. Kammenhuber. Hethitisches Wörterbuch. 2nd ed. Heidelberg, 1975-.
IBoT Istanbul Arkeoloji Müzelerinde Bulunan Boğazköy Tabeltleri (nden Seçme Metinler). Istanbul, 1944, 1947, 1954; Ankara, 1988.
IBS Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Kulturwissenschaft (Sonderheft). Innsbruck.
ICC International Critical Commentary.
IDB G. A. Buttrick, Editor. The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. 4 Vols. New York and Nashville: Abingdon, 1962.
IEJ Israel Exploration Journal.
IF Indogermanische Forschungen.
IM Istanbuler Mitteilungen.
IntB G. A. Buttrick, Editor. The Interpreter’s Bible. 12 Vols. New York and Nashville: Abingdon, 1951–57.
IRSA E. Sollberger and J.-R. Kupper. Inscriptions royales sumériennes et akkadiennes. Paris: Cerf, 1971.
JANES Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society.
JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society.
JARCE Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt.
JBL Journal of Biblical Literature.
JCS Journal of Cuneiform Studies.
JEA Journal of Egyptian Archaeology.
JEOL Jaarbericht van het Vooraziatisch-Egyptisch Genootschap: Ex Oriente Lux.
JESHO Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient.
JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society.
JIES Journal of Indo-European Studies.
JJS Journal of Jewish Studies.
JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies.
JNSL Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages.
JPOS Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society.
JQR Jewish Quarterly Review.
JRAS Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.
JSOR Journal of the Society of Oriental Research.
JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament.
JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, Supplement Series.
JSS Journal of Semitic Studies.
JSSEA Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquity.
JSSSup Journal of Semitic Studies, Supplement Series.
KAI H. Donner and W. Röllig. Kanaanäische und aramäische Inschriften. 3 Vols. Wiesbaden, 1962–64.
KAR E. Ebeling. Keilschrifttexte aus Assur religiösen Inhalts.
KAT Kommentar zum Alten Testament.
KB1 L. Koehler and W. Baumgartner. Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros. Leiden: Brill, 1958.
KB3 L. Koehler, W. Baumgartner, and J. Stamm, et al., Editors. Hebräisches und aramäisches Lexikon zum Alten Testament. Leiden: Brill, 1967.
KBo Keilschrifttexte aus Boghazköi. (vols. 1–22 are a subseries of WVDOG). Leipzig & Berlin.
KlF Kleinasiatische Forschungen.
KKU W. Sallaberger, Der Kultische Kalender der Ur III Zeit. Untersuchungen zur Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie 7/1. Berlin & New York: de Gruyter, 1993.
KRI K. A. Kitchen. Ramesside Inscriptions, Historical and Biographical. Oxford, 1969-.
KTU M. Dietrich, O. Loretz, and J. Sanmartín. Keilalphabetische Texte aus Ugarit einschliesslich der keilalphabetischen Texte außerhalb Ugarits. Teil 1 Transkription. AOAT 24/1. Kevelaer: Butzon & Bercker; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1976.
KTU2 M. Dietrich, O. Loretz, and J. Sanmartín. The Cuneiform Alphabetic Texts from Ugarit, Ras Ibn Hani, and Other Places (KTU: Second, enlarged edition). Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 1995.
KUB Keilschrifturkunden aus Boghazköi. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Vorderasiatische Abteilung. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1921-.
KZ Historische Sprachforschung = Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Sprachforschung (“Kuhns Zeitschrift”)
LAPO Littératures anciennes du Proche–Orient.
LAS S. Parpola. Letters from Assyrian Scholars to the Kings Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal. 2 Vols. AOAT 5. Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1970, 1983.
LCL Loeb Classical Library.
LdÄ Lexikon der Ägyptologie.
LIH L. W. King. The Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi.
LMAOS Liverpool Monographs in Archaeology and Oriental Studies.
LKA E. Ebeling. Literarische Keilschriftexte aus Assur.
LSS Leipziger semitistische Studien.
LV Late Version.
MAOG Mitteilungen der altorientalischen Gesellschaft.
MARI Mari, Annales de recherches interdisciplinaires.
MÄS Münchner ägyptologische Studien.
MAV Middle Assyrian Version.
MDAIK Mitteilungen des deutschen archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo.
MDOG Mitteilungen der deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft.
MIO Mitteilungen des Instituts für Orientforschung.
MLE Materiali lessicali ed epigrafici.
MMEW A. Livingstone. Mystical and Mythological Explanatory Works of Assyrian and Babylonian Scholars. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986 (reprint 1987).
MRS Mission de Ras Shamra. Paris.
MSL Materialien zum sumerischen Lexikon; Materials for the Sumerian Lexicon.
MVAG Mitteilungen der vorderasiatisch-ägyptischen Gesellschaft.
NABU Nouvelles assyriologiques brèves et utilitaires.
NAWG Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen.
Nbn. J. N. Strassmaier. Inschriften von Nabonidus.
OA Oriens Antiquus. Rivista del Centro per le Antichità e la Storia dell’Arte del Vicino Oriente.
OBO Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis.
OBV Old Babylonian Version.
OCPR E. Matsushima, Editor. Official Cult and Popular Religion in the Ancient Near East: Papers of the First Colloquium on the Ancient Near East – The City and Its Life, held at the Middle Eastern Culture Center in Japan (Mitaka, Tokyo), March 20–22, 1992. Heidelberg: Winter, 1993.
OECT Oxford Editions of Cuneiform Texts.
OIP The University of Chicago, Oriental Institute Publications.
OLA Orientalia lovaniensia analecta.
OLP Orientalia lovaniensia periodica.
OLZ Orientalistische Literaturzeitung.
Or Orientalia. n.s.
OrSuec Orientalia Suecana.
OTL The Old Testament Library, Westminster Press.
OTS Oudtestamentische Studiën.
PAAJR Proceedings of the American Academy of Jewish Research.
PAPS Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society.
PBS Publications of the Babylonian Section, University Museum, University of Pennsylvania.
PEQ Palestine Exploration Quarterly.
PIBA Proceedings of the Irish Biblical Association.
PIHANS Publications de l’Institute historique et archéologique néerlandais de Stamboul.
PJ Palästina-Jahrbuch.
PKB J. A. Brinkman. A Political History of Post-Kassite Babylonia 1158–722 B.C. Rome, 1968.
POTT D. J. Wiseman, Editor. Peoples of Old Testament Times. Oxford: Clarendon.
PRU J. Nougayrol/Ch. Virolleaud. Le Palais royal d’Ugarit. II-VI. MRS. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1955–1970.
PSBA Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology.
PSD Ȧ. Sjöberg, Editor. The Sumerian Dictionary of the University Museum of the University of Pennsylvannia. Philadelphia, 1948-.
PPYEE Publications of the Pennsylvania-Yale Expedition to Egypt.
R H. C. Rawlinson, The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia.
RA Revue d’assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale.
RAI Recontre Assyriologique Internationale.
RAI 26 B. Alster, Editor. Death in Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia 8. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag.
RAI 38 La circulation des biens, des personnes et des idées dans le Proche-Orient ancien: Actes de le XXXVIIIe R.A.I. Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 1992.
RAKM H. D. Galter, Editor. Die Rolle der Astronomie in den Kulturen Mesopotamiens. Beiträge zum 3. Gräzer Mor-genländischen Symposion (23.–27. September 1991). Graz: GrazKult.
RÄRG H. Bonnet. Reallexikon der ägyptischen Religionsgeschichte. Berlin, 1952.
ResQ Restoration Quarterly.
RB Revue biblique.
RdÉ Revue d’Égyptologie.
RES Répertoire d’épigraphie sémitique.
RGBK B. Janowski, et al., Editors. Religionsgeschichtliche Beziehungen zwischen Kleinasien, Nordsyrien und dem Alten Testament. Internationales Symposion Hamburg 17.–21. März 1990. OBO 129. Freiburg/Schweiz: Universitätsverlag.
RGTC Réportoire géographique des textes cunéiformes, B TAVO, Reihe B 7, 1ff. Wiesbaden, 1974-.
RHA Revue hittite et asianique.
RHR Revue de l’histoire des religions.
RIDA Revue internationale des droits de l’antiquité. 3rd series. Brussels.
RIH Field numbers of tablets excavated at Ras Ibn-Hani.
RIMA 1 The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia. Assyrian Periods. Volume 1. A. K. Grayson. Assyrian Rulers of the Third and Second Millennia BC (To 1115 BC). Toronto: University of Toronto, 1987.
RIMA 2 The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia. Assyrian Periods. Volume 2. A. K. Grayson. Assyrian Rulers of the Early First Millennium BC (1114–859 BC). Toronto: University of Toronto, 1991.
RISA G. A. Barton. The Royal Inscriptions of Sumer and Akkad. Library of Ancient Semitic Inscriptions 1; New Haven: Yale, 1929.
RlA E. Ebeling and B. Meissner, et al., Editors. Reallexikon der Assyriologie.
RS Field numbers of tablets excavated at Ras Shamra.
RSF Rivista di Studi Fenici.
RSO Rivista degli Studi Orientali.
RSOu Ras Shamra – Ougarit. Publications de la Mission Française Archéologique de Ras Shamra – Ougarit. Paris: Éditions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 1983-.
RSOu 3 M. Yon, Editor. Le centre de la ville. 38e–44e campagnes (1978–1984). RSOu 3. Paris: Éditions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 1987.
RSOu 4 D. Pardee. Les textes para–mythologiques de la 24e campagne (1961). RSOu 4. Paris: Éditions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 1988.
RSOu 6 M. Yon, et al., Editors. Arts et industries de la pierre. RSOu 6. Paris: Éditions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 1991.
RSOu 7 P. Bordreuil, Editor. Une bibliothèque au sud de la ville. RSOu 7. Paris: Éditions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 1991.
RSOu 11 M. Yon, M. Sznycer, P. Bordreuil, Editors. Le Pays d’Ougarit autour de 1200 av.J.C. Historie et archéologie. Actes du Colloque International, Paris, 28 juin — 1er juillet 1993. RSOu 11. Paris: Éditions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 1995.
RT Recueil de travaux relatifs à la philologie et à l’archéologie égyptiennes et assyriennes.
SAA State Archives of Assyria.
SAAB State Archives of Assyria Bulletin.
SAAS State Archives of Assyria Studies.
SAHG A. Falkenstein and W. von Soden. Sumerische und akkadische Hymnen und Gebete. Zürich and Stuttgart, 1953.
SÄK Studien zur altägyptischen Kultur.
SANE Sources from the Ancient Near East.
SAOC Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilizations. Chicago: The Oriental Institute.
SARI Jerrold S. Cooper. Sumerian and Akkadian Royal Inscriptions. Vol. 1: The Pre-Sargonic Texts. The AOS Translation Series 1. New Haven, CN: AOS, 1986.
SBAW Sitzungsberichte der bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
SBH G. A. Reisner. Sumerisch-babylonische Hymnen nach Thontafeln griechischer Zeit.
SBL Society of Biblical Literature.
SBLDS Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series.
SBLRBS SBL Resources for Biblical Study.
SBLWAW SBL Writings from the Ancient World.
SBT Studies in Biblical Theology.
SBV Standard Babylonian Version.
SCO Studi Classici e Orientali.
ScrHier Scripta Hierosolymitana.
SDB Supplément au Dictionnaire de la Bible. Paris.
SEL Studi Epigrafici e Linguistici sul Vicino Oriente antico.
SGL A. Falkenstein and J. van Dijk. Sumerische Götterlieder. Heidelberg, 1959.
Shnaton Shnaton. An Annual for Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies. (Hebrew).
SJOT Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament.
SIC 1 C. D. Evans, W. W. Hallo, and J. B. White, Editors. Scripture in Context: Essays on the Comparative Method. Pittsburgh, 1980.
SIC 2 W. W. Hallo, J. C. Moyer, and L. G. Perdue,Editors. Scripture in Context II: More Essays on the Comparative Method. Winona Lake, Indiana, 1983.
SIC 3 W. W. Hallo, B. W. Jones, and G. L. Mattingly, Editors. The Bible in the Light of Cuneiform Literature. Scripture in Context III. Ancient Near Eastern Texts and Studies 8. Lewiston: Mellen, 1990.
SIC 4 K. L. Younger, Jr., W. W. Hallo, and B. F. Batto. Editors. The Canon in Comparative Perspective. Scripture in Context IV. Ancient Near Eastern Texts and Studies, 11. Lewiston, NY: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1991.
SMEA Studi micenei ed egeo-anatolici.
SO Sources orientales.
SÖAW Sitzungsberichte der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaft, Phil.-hist. Kl., Vienna.
SPAW Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaft, Phil.-hist. Kl., Berlin.
SPHC Select Papyri in the Hieratic Character from the Collections of the British Museum. Part 2. London, 1860.
SRT E. Chiera. Sumerian Religious Texts. Upland, PA, 1924.
SSEAJ Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities Journal.
SSI J. C. L. Gibson. Textbook of Syrian Semitic Inscriptions. 3 Vols. Oxford, 1973–79.
SSU Studia Semitica Upsaliensia.
StBoT Studien zu den Boğazköy Texten.
STT O. R. Gurney, J. J. Finkelstein and P. Hulin. The Sultantepe Tablets.
Studia Aramaica M. J. Geller, J. C. Greenfield, and M. P. Weitzman, Editors. Studia Aramaica: New Sources and New Approaches. JSS Supplement 4. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Studies Alp H. Otten, H. Ertem, E. Akurgal and A. Süel, Editors. Hittite and Other Anatolian and Near Eastern Studies in Honour of Sedat Alp. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1992.
Studies Ahlström W. B. Barrack and J. R. Spencer, Editors. In the Shelter of Elyon: Essays on Ancient Palestinian Life in Honor of G. W. Ahlström. JSOTSup 31. Sheffield: JSOT, 1984.
Studies Bounni P. Matthiae, et al., Editors. Resurrecting the Past. A Joint Tribute to Adnan Bounni. Uitgaven van het Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te Istanbul 67. Istanbul: Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te Istanbul, 1990.
Studies Brunner M. Görg, Editor. Fontes atque Pontes. Eines Festgabe für Hellmut Brunner. AAT 5. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1983.
Studies Brunner-Traut I. Gramer-Wallert and W. Helck, Editors. Festschrift für Emma Brunner-Traut. Tübingen: Attempto Verlag, 1992.
Studies Cazelles A. Caquot and M. Delcor, Editors. Mélanges bibliques et orientaux en l’honneur de M. Henri Cazelles. AOAT 212. Kevelaer: Butzon & Bercker; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1981.
Studies Dussaud Mélanges syriens offerts à Monsieur René Dussaud: secretaire perpetuel de l’Academie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. 2 Vols. BAH 30. Paris: Geuthner, 1939.
Studies Ehrman Y. L. Arbeitman, Editor. Fucus. A Semitic/Afrasian Gathering in Remembrance of Albert Ehrman. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 58. Philadelphia: Benjamins, 1988.
Studies Fecht J. Osing and G. Dreyer, Editors. Form and Mass, Festschrift für G. Fecht. AAT 12. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1987.
Studies Fensham W. T. Claassen, Editor. Text and Context. Old Testament and Semitic Studies for F. C. Fensham. JSOTSup 48. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1988.
Studies Finkelstein M. deJong Ellis, Editor. Essays on the Ancient Near East in Memory of Jacob Joel Finkelstein. Memoirs of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, December, 19. Hamden, CT: Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, Transactions, 1977.
Studies Fitzmyer M. P. Horgan and P. J. Kobelski, Editors. To Touch the Text. Biblical and Related Studies in Honor of Joseph A. Fitzmyer, S.J. New York: Crossroad, 1989.
Studies Freedman C. Meyers and M. O’Connor. Essays in Honor of David Noel Freedman in Celebration of his Sixtieth Birthday. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1983.
Studies Galling A. Kuschke and E. Kutsch, Editors. Archäologie und Altes Testament. Festschrift für Kurt Galling zum 8. Jan. 1970. Tübingen: Mohr (Siebeck), 1970.
Studies Gibson N. Wyatt, W. G. E. Watson and J. B. Lloyd, Editors. Ugarit, Religion and Culture. Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Ugarit, Religion and Culture Edinburgh, July 1994. Essays Presented in Honour of Professor John C. L. Gibson. UBL 12. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 1996.
Studies Glueck James A. Sanders, Editor. Near Eastern Archaeology in the Twentieth Century. Essays in Honor of Nelson Glueck. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1970.
Studies Gordon H. A. Hoffner, Jr., Editor. Orient and Occident. Essays Presented to Cyrus H. Gordon on the Occasion of his Sixty–fifth Birthday. AOAT 22. Kevelaer: Butzon & Bercker; Neukirchen–Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1973.
Studies Gordon2 G. Rendsburg, et al., Editors. The Bible World. Essays in Honor of Cyrus H. Gordon. New York: KTAV/ New York University, 1980.
Studies Griffith S. R. K. Glanville, Editor. Studies Presented to F. Ll. Griffith. London: Oxford University Press, 1932.
Studies Güterbock K. Bittel, et al., Editors. Anatolian Studies Presented to Hans Gustav Güterbock on the Occasion of his 65th Birthday. PIHANS 33. Istanbul:NederlandsHistorisch-Archaeologisch Instituut in het Nabije Oosten, 1974.
Studies Güterbock2 H. A. Hoffner, Jr., and G. Beckman, Editors. Kaniš-šuwar. A Tribute to Hans G. GüterbockonhisSeventh- Fifth Birthday. AS 23. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
Studies Hallo M. E. Cohen, D. C. Snell and D. B. Weisberg, Editors. The Tablet and the Scroll: Near Eastern Studies in Honor of William W. Hallo. Bethesda, MD: CDL, 1993.
Studies Hospers H. L. J. Vanstiphout, et al., Editors. Scripta Signa Vocis: Studies about Scripts, Scriptures, Scribes, and Languages in the Near East, Presented to J. H. Hospers by his Pupils, Colleagues, and Friends. Groningen: Egbert Forsten, 1986.
Studies Hughes Studies in Honor of George R. Hughes. SAOC 39. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
Studies Jacobsen S. J. Lieberman, Editor. Sumerological Studies in Honor of Thorkild Jacobsen. AS 20. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976.
Studies Kramer B. L. Eichler, et al., Editors. Kramer Anniversary Volume. AOAT 25. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag.
Studies Kramer2 Jack M. Sasson, Editor. Studies in Literature from the Ancient Near East … Dedicated to Samuel Noah Kramer. AOS 65. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1984.
Studies Kraus G. van Driel, et al., Editors. Zikir Šumim. Assyriological Studies Presented to F. R. Kraus on the Occasion of his Seventieth Birthday. Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten Studia Francisci Scholten Memoriae Dicata 5. Leiden: Brill, 1982.
Studies Kutscher A. F. Rainey, Editor. kinattūtu ša dārâti: Raphael Kutscher Memorial Volume. Tel Aviv Occasional Publications 1. Tel Aviv: Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University, 1993.
Studies Laroche E. Masson, Editor. Florilegium Anatolicum. Mélanges offerts à Emmanuel Laroche. Paris: Éditions E. de Boccard, 1979.
Studies Leslau A. S. Kaye, Editor. Semitic Studies in Honor of Wolf Leslau on the Occasion of his Eighty–fifth Birthday November 14th, 1991. 2 Volumes. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1991.
Studies Loewenstamm Y. Avishur and J. Blau, Editors. Studies in Bible and the Ancient Near East Presented to Samuel E. Loewenstamm on His Seventieth Birthday. Jerusalem: Rubenstein, 1978.
Studies Meek W. W. McCullough, Editor. The Seed of Wisdom: Essays in Honour of T. J. Meek. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1964.
Studies Moran T. Abusch, J. Huehnergard and P.Steinkeller,Editors. Lingering Over Words: Studies in Ancient Near Eastern Literature in Honor of William L. Moran. HSS 37. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990.
Studies Naster R. Doncel and R. Lebrun, Editors. Archéologie et relireligions de l’Anatolie ancienne: mélanges en l’honneur du professor Paul Naster. Homo Religiosus 10. 2 Volumes. Louvain-la-Neuve: Centre d’histoire des religions, 1983.
Studies Oppenheim R. D. Biggs and J. A. Brinkman, Editors. From the Workship of the Assyrian Dictionary. Studies Presented to A. Leo Oppenheim. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964.
Studies Otto J. Assmann, E. Feucht and R. Grieshammer, Editors. Fragen an die Altägyptischen Literature. Studien zum Gedenken an E. Otto. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1977.
Studies Pope J. H. Marks and R. M. Good, Editors. Love and Death in the Ancient Near East: Essays in Honor of Marvin H. Pope. Guilford: Four Quarters Publishing Company, 1987.
Studies Reiner F. Rochberg-Halton, Editor. Language, Literature, and History: Philological and Historical Studies presented to Erica Reiner. AOS 67. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1987.
Studies Rowley M. Noth, Editor. Wisdom in israel and in the Ancient Near East Presented to Professor Harold Henry Rowley. VTSup 3. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1955.
Studies Sachs E. Leichty, et al., Editors. A Scientific Humanist: Studies in Memory of Abraham Sachs. Occasional Publications of the Samuel Noah Kramer Fund 9. Philadelphia: University Museum, 1988.
Studies Schott W. Helck, Editor. Festschrift für Siegfried Schott zu seinem 70. Geburtstag am 20. August 1967. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1968.
Studies Seeligmann Y. Zakovits and A. Rofé, Editors. SepherYiṣḥaqArieh Seeligmann. Jerusalem: Rubenstein, 1983.
Studies Segert E. M. Cook, Editor. Sopher Mahir: NorthwestSemitic Studies Presented to Stanislav Segert. Santa Monica, 1990 = Maarav 5–6.
Studies Sjöberg H. Behrens, et al., Editors. Dumu–e2–dub–ba–a. Studies in Honor of Ȧke W. Sjöberg. Occasional Publications of the Samuel Noah Kramer Fund 11. Philadelphia: University Museum, 1989.
Studies Speiser William W. Hallo, Editor. Essays in Memory of E. A. Speiser. AOS 53. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1968.
Studies Stinespring J. M. Efird, Editor. The Use of the Old Testament in the New and Other Essays. Studies in Honor of William Franklin Stinespring. Durham: Duke University Press, 1972.
Studies Tadmor M. Cogan and I. Ephʾal, Editors. Ah, Assyria, … Studies in Assyrian History and Ancient Near Eastern Historiography Presented to Hayim Tadmor. ScrHier 33. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, 1991.
Studies Talmon M. Fishbane and E. Tov, Editors. ‘Sha’arei Talmon’: Studies Presented to Shemaryahu Talmon. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1992.
Studies Wilson G. Kadish, Editor. Studies in Honor of John A. Wilson. SAOC 35. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969.
Studies Wright F. M. Cross, W. E. Lemke, and P.D. Miller,Editors. Magnalia Dei, The Mighty Acts of God: Essays on the Bible and Archaeology in Memory of G. Ernest Wright. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976.
SWBAS The Social World of Biblical Antiquity Series.
TB Tyndale Bulletin.
TCL Musée du Louvre, Département des Antiquités orientales, Textes cunéiformes.
TCS Texts from Cuneiform Sources.
TDOT G. Johannes Botterweck and H. Ringgren, Editors. Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Rev. ed. Trans. by J. T. Willis. Grand Rapids: 1974-.
THeth Texte der Hethiter. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Verlag.
ThS Theologische Studien.
TLB Tabulae cuneiformes a F. M. Th. de Liagre Böhl collectae.
TLZ Theologische Literaturzeitung.
TMH Texte und Materialien der Frau Professor Hilprecht Collection of Babylonian Antiquities im Eigentum der Universität Jena. Leipzig, 1932–37.
TUAT O. Kaiser, Editor. Texte aus der Umwelt des Alten Testaments. Gütersloh, 1984-.
TZ Theologische Zeitschrift.
UBL Ugaritisch–Biblische Literatur.
UET Ur Excavations, Texts.
UF Ugarit-Forschungen.
Ugaritica 5 C. F. A. Schaeffer, Editor. Ugaritica5. MRS 16; BAH 80. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale; Geuthner.
Ugaritica 6 J.–C. Courtois, Editor. Ugaritica6. MRS 17; BAH 81. Paris: Mission Archéologique de Ras Shamra; Geuthner.
Ugaritica 7 C. F. A. Schaeffer, Editor. Ugaritica7. MRS 18; BAH 99. Paris: Mission Archéologique de Ras Shamra; Geuthner.
UMBS University of Pennsylvania. The University Museum, Publications of the Babylonian Section.
Unity and Diversity H. Goedicke and J. J. M. Roberts, Editors. Unity and Diversity: Essays in the History, Literature, and Religion of the Ancient Near East. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975.
Urk. IV K. Sethe and W. Helck, Editors. Urkunden des ägyptischen Altertums, Abteilung IV: Urkunden der 18. Dynastie. Fascicles 1–22. Leipzig and Berlin, 1906–1958.
UT C. H. Gordon. Ugaritic Textbook. AnOr 38. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1965.
VAB Vorderasiatische Bibliothek.
VAT Tablets in the collections of the Staatliche Museen, Berlin.
VO Vicino Oriente.
VT Vetus Testamentum.
VTSup Supplements to Vetus Testamentum.
Wb A. Erman and H. Grapow, Editors. Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache. 7 Vols. Leipzig, 1926–1963.
WBC Word Biblical Commentary.
WCJS World Congress of Jewish Studies.
WHJP World History of the Jewish People.
WMANT Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament.
WO Die Welt des Orients.
WVDOG Wissenschaftliche Veröffentlichungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft.
YBC Yale Babylonian Collection.
YES Yale Egyptological Studies.
YNER Yale Near Eastern Researches.
YOS Yale Oriental Series. Babylonian Texts.
YOR Yale Oriental Series. Researches.
ZA Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie.
ZÄS Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde.
ZAW Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft.
ZDMG Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft.
ZDPV Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins.
ZThK Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche.
GENERAL ABBREVIATIONS
Abbr. abbreviation
Akk. Akkadian
ANE ancient Near East
Aram. Aramaic
BH Biblical Hebrew
ca. circa
col(s). column(s)
ED Early Dynastic Period
ed. edition
Eg. Egyptian
esp. especially
GN geographical name
Heb. Hebrew
imperf. imperfect
JPS Jewish Publication Society
K Kuyunjik Collection, British Museum
KJV King James Version
LH Late Hebrew
LXX Septuagint
MH Middle Hittite
MS Middle Hittite Script
ms(s) manuscript(s)
MT Masoretic Text
n (n). note(s)
NJPS New Jewish Publication Society translation
NRSV New Revised Standard Version
NS New Hittite Script
n.s. New Series
OB Old Babylonian
obv. obverse
OH Old Hittite
P. Papyrus
perf. perfect
Phil.-hist. Kl. Philosophisch-historische Klasse
Phoen. Phoenician
pl. plural
pl(s). plate(s)
prep. preposition
r. reverse
rev. revised
SBV Standard Babylonian Version
Sel. Selection
Sum. Sumerian
WS West Semitic
Sam. Samaritan Pentateuch
Ug. Ugaritic
ABBREVIATIONS OF BIBLICAL BOOKS (INCLUDING THE APOCRYPHA)
Gen Genesis
Exod Exodus
Lev Leviticus
Num Numbers
Deut Deuteronomy
Josh Joshua
Judg Judges
1–2 Sam 1–2 Samuel
1–2 Kgs 1–2 Kings
Isa Isaiah
Jer Jeremiah
Ezek Ezekiel
Hos Hosea
Joel Joel
Obad Obadiah
Amos Amos
Jonah Jonah
Mic Micah
Nah Nahum
Hab Habakkuk
Zeph Zephaniah
Hag Haggai
Zech Zechariah
Mal Malachi
Ps (pl.: Pss) Psalm(s)
Job Job
Prov Proverbs
Ruth Ruth
Cant Canticles (= Song of Songs)
Eccl (= Qoh) Ecclesiastes (= Qoheleth)
Lam Lamentations
Esth Esther
Dan Daniel
Ezra Ezra
Neh Nehemiah
1–2 Chr 1–2 Chronicles
Add Esth Additions to Esther
Bar Baruch
Bel Bel and the Dragon
1–2 Esdr 1–2 Esdras
4 Ezra 4 Ezra
Jdt Judith
Ep Jer Epistle of Jeremiah
1–2–3-4 Macc 1–2–3-4 Maccabees
Sir Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)
Sus Susanna
Tob Tobit
Wis Wisdom
TALMUDIC SOURCES
b. Šabb. Babylonian Talmud, Šabbat
b. ʿAbod. Zar. Babylonian Talmud, ʿAboda Zara
y. Sanh. 18a Jerusalem Talmud, Sanhedrin
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
JAMES P. ALLEN
Metropolitan Musuem of Art
BENDT ALSTER
University of Copenhagen
RICHARD H. BEAL
University of Chicago
GARY BECKMAN
University of Michigan
CHAIM COHEN
Ben Gurion University of the Negev
BILLIE JEAN COLLINS
Emory University
STEPHANIE DALLEY
Oxford University
AARON DEMSKY
Bar-Ilan University
D. O. EDZARD
University of Munich
GERTRUD FARBER
University of Chicago
DANIEL FLEMING
New York University
BENJAMIN R. FOSTER
Yale University
MICHAEL V. FOX
University of Wisconsin, Madison
GENE B. GRAGG
University of Chicago
ANN K. GUINAN
University of Pennsylvannia
WILLIAM W. HALLO
Yale University
WOLFGANG HEIMPEL
University of California, Berkeley
JAMES K. HOFFMEIER
Wheaton College
HARRY A. HOFFNER, JR.
University of Chicago
TH. P. J. VAN DEN HOUT
University of Amsterdam
VICTOR HUROWITZ
Ben Gurion University of the Negev
THORKILD JACOBSEN
Harvard University
DINA KATZ
Leiden
JACOB KLEIN
Bar-Ilan University
BARUCH A. LEVINE
New York University
MIRIAM LICHTHEIM
University of California, retired
ALASDAIR LIVINGSTONE
University of Birmingham
TREMPER LONGMAN III
Westminster Theological Seminary
GREGORY MCMAHON
University of New Hampshire
ALAN MILLARD
University of Liverpool
DENNIS PARDEE
University of Chicago
ROBERT K. RITNER
University of Chicago
YITSCHAK SEFATI
Bar-Ilan University
NILI SHUPAK
University of Haifa
RICHARD C. STEINER
Yeshiva University
H. L. J. VANSTIPHOUT
University of Groningen
K. LAWSON YOUNGER, JR.
LeTourneau University
INTRODUCTION
ANCIENT NEAR EASTERN TEXTS AND THEIR RELEVANCE FOR BIBLICAL EXEGESIS
William W. Hallo
Classical and Near Eastern parallels have been used to illuminate the biblical text for as long as there have been biblical studies. Already according to Philo Judaeus, writing in Greek and living in the shadow of the great Greek library of Alexandria in the first half century of the Common Era,3 Abraham “becomes a speculative philosopher,” a role-model for the sect of Jewish ascetics that he described as Therapeutae.5 Nine centuries later, Saadiah Gaon, likewise born in Egypt7 but living in the equally stimulating atmosphere of Abbasid Baghdad, freely employed his knowledge of Arabic to solve cruces of Biblical Hebrew.9 But it again took almost another millennium before biblical names, words, and themes, were to be juxtaposed, not just to those of the contemporary world, but to those long lost to sight and mind in the buried cities of the past.
The nineteenth century of our era opened Egypt and the Asiatic Near East to large-scale excavations, and witnessed the decipherments of the hieroglyphic and cuneiform scripts. The results revolutionized what can best be described as “the first half of history” — that 2500-year stretch between the invention of these earliest forms of writing and their replacement by the simpler “alphabetic” scripts of the Hebrew and Greek traditions, and their derivations. The period 3000–500 BCE (more or less), ostensibly the context of the biblical record, was thrown into wholly new relief. The inevitable transformation of biblical studies was not long in ensuing.
It is sufficient to recall in this connection those great syntheses that characterized German biblical scholarship of the comparative variety beginning in 1872 with Eberhard Schrader and his The Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament. A second, revised edition appeared as early as 1883, and twenty years later, in 1903, the compendium, by now classic, was completely revised and updated by two leading Assyriologists of the time, Heinrich Zimmern and Hugo Winckler.13 Winckler had himself entered the lists with a compendium of his own by now in its second edition.
The following year, 1904, the scope of coverage was extended to the hieroglyphic sources from Egypt in The Old Testament in the Light of the Ancient East, by Alfred Jeremias. The popularity of this work can be judged by the fact that it went through three further editions, each one thoroughly revised.16
Meantime Hugo Gressmann widened the scope of such works still further by introducing the pictorial element in “Ancient Near Eastern Texts and Pictures to the Old Testament,” in two volumes and as many editions.
The appeal of these works of synthesis was by no means limited to a German–speaking readership. On the contrary, many of them appeared in English translations and have been cited by their English titles here. Thus Schrader appeared in translation as early as 1885–8, and Jeremias in 1911.19 At the same time, German scholarship, both biblical and ancient Near Eastern, was having a profound impact in the English–speaking world through more personal, direct means: British and particularly American students coming to Germany for graduate and post–graduate study on the one hand, and on the other, German scholars coming to American universities to teach. Among many other examples of the former category, we may cite Julian Morgenstern, who received a doctorate in Assyriology from Heidelberg in 1904 with a dissertation on “The Doctrine of Sin in the Babylonian Religion.” A good example of the latter category would be Paul Haupt (1858–1926), brought from Göttingen in 1885 to head the new Oriental Seminary at the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore.
Haupt’s most famous student, and the leading figure in the comparative approach to biblical studies in America through most of the twentieth century, was unquestionably William F. Albright (1891–1971). Last of the polymaths who were equally at home in cuneiform, hieroglyphics, and Northwest Semitics, he had to forego a career in Assyriology or Egyptology on account of defective eyesight, but continued to integrate every new archaeological and epigraphic discovery into his ever expanding panorama of the total experience of biblical Israel. Beginning with a dissertation on “The Assyrian Deluge Epic” written under Haupt in 1916 but never published, he spent the years between the two world wars in publishing an unending stream of articles; then, beginning in 1940, he devoted himself to longer monographic works, elegant and wide–ranging syntheses of his views on biblical history, archaeology, literature, religion and theology. The volumes entitled From the Stone Age to Christianity: Monotheism and the Historical Process (1940), The Archaeology of Palestine (1949), The Biblical Period from Abraham to Ezra: an Historical Survey (1963), History, Archaeology and Christian Humanism (1964), and Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan (1968) attest to his scope.
Although the German model of compendia of comparative texts was thus avoided by Albright, it was followed by other American scholars, notably R. W. Rogers and G. A. Barton,23 whose Archaeology and the Bible appeared in its seventh and last edition in 1937. But with the approach of the Second World War and the shift of Ancient Near Eastern scholars and scholarship to America, the creation of a new compendium on an American model became a top priority. In James B. Pritchard an editor was found who was able to carry the task forward. He recruited Albright and a dozen other leading (North) American specialists, among them four outstanding emigre scholars.25 He used Gressmann as his proximate and most recent model, both in the initial selection of texts and in the creation of a companion volume of pictures27 which was his own work based on his archaeological training and interests.
Pritchard’s volume, or ANET as it is frequently called, quickly established itself as the pre–eminent compendium of its kind in the post–war period. Comparable efforts by British, French and even German teams made no attempt to replace it, but rather to offer complementary works answering to different requirements. Thus for example the British “Society for Old Testament Study” published Documents from Old Testament Times (1958) on the occasion of its fortieth anniversary. But D. Winton Thomas, its editor, had no intention of matching or even approaching the scope of ANET (which was freely cited in the volume). The French series Littératures anciennes du Proche–Orient, published under the patronage of École Biblique et Archéologique Française of Jerusalem, covers much of the same ground as ANET and does so, if anything, more extensively. But its separate volumes are appearing at lengthy intervals as each is completed by the relevant contributor(s); hence the series cannot replace ANET as a handy reference work covering all or at least most of the “ancient Near Eastern texts relating to the Old Testament.” Even the Germans have re–entered the lists with Texte aus der Umwelt des Alten Testaments, edited by Otto Kaiser. In three volumes, it is an ambitious attempt to revive the older tradition of German compendia and to combine that with some of the best features of the newer ones — including the depth of the French series and the breadth of ANET. But in spite of its title, it makes little or no reference to biblical parallels or contrasts.
As for ANET itself, it has spawned a veritable cottage-industry of by–products. Mention has already been made of the companion volume of The Ancient Near East in Pictures (1954) familiarly known as ANEP. There have also been two combined abridgements of ANET and ANEP, published respectively in 1958 and 1975,29 both widely used as textbooks. There is a 1969 volume combining the new material of the third edition of ANET with a second edition of ANEP. Finally there is the third edition of ANET itself, which appeared at the same time. But unlike the previous two editions, the new edition did not so much break new ground as give wider circulation to new translations of Ancient Near Eastern texts that had appeared elsewhere in the interim. To quote my own review at the time,
The great appeal of (ANET) rested on sound foundations: for the first time it assembled some of the most significant Ancient Near Eastern texts in authoritative, generously annotated English translations based on the accumulated insight of several generations of scholarship scattered, till then, in a bewildering variety of publications not readily accessible to the average biblical scholar. The new edition (1969) fulfills some of the same desiderata.… But by its very nature it is essentially different from the original edition, for in great measure it concentrates on texts newly discovered or recovered, and by and large available in current publications, for the most part in English, which are complete with readable translations and scholarly apparatus.31
The trend noted in my review was not about to stop. On the contrary, the trickle observed there has meantime become a mighty stream. As ever more new texts are made available, the relationship between biblical and ancient Near Eastern studies has assumed an ever growing importance if only as measured by the sheer output of books and articles inspired by their comparison. Moshe Yitzhaki of Bar–Ilan University has even devised a whole new “bibliometric approach” to provide such a yardstick. Defining “citation analysis” as “the analysis of the reference in scholarly publications of a certain subject field in order to describe patterns of citation,”33 he applies this new technique to the fields of biblical and ancient Near Eastern studies and concludes that, at least in the small and somewhat random sample tested, “the figures indicate a relatively low use of the research literature of one field by the other.”
If his sample is representative, we face an anomalous situation: an ever increasing stream of ancient Near Eastern texts — recovered, reconstructed, edited and translated — which is relevant for biblical studies, but a statistical reluctance to employ them. Under the circumstances, a new compendium is called for all the more urgently. We do not, it is true, need a new ANET to provide us with a first authoritative English rendering of the texts, and as far as I know none is contemplated. But we do need a new compendium to assemble the existing renderings, update them where necessary, and indicate their relevance for biblical scholarship. That is what The Context of Scripture proposes to do. The project was conceived by David E. Orton, Senior Editor of E. J. Brill Publishers, and developed along lines set forth in a detailed proposal submitted to him by the undersigned in 1991. The collaboration of K. Lawson Younger, Jr. of LeTourneau University (Longview, Texas) as Associate Editor was secured shortly thereafter.
How does the new compendium differ from its predecessors? This question will here be considered from two perspectives — what may be called the horizontal and the vertical dimensions respectively — and the resulting theoretical formulations will then be illustrated with a concrete example or two.
The “context” of a given text may be regarded as its horizontal dimension — the geographical, historical, religious, political and literary setting in which it was created and disseminated. The contextual approach tries to reconstruct and evaluate this setting, whether for a biblical text or one from the rest of the ancient Near East. Given the frequently very different settings of biblical and ancient Near Eastern texts, however, it is useful to recognize such contrasts as well as comparisons or, if one prefers, to operate with negative as well as positive comparison.36 According to Pritchard, already Gressmann had maintained that “translations should serve … not only for comparison and illustration, but for contrast.”
But even where (positive) comparison is asserted, it is useful to raise questions of category and genre so that, as nearly as possible, like is compared with like. In the present project, the broader literary context, or category, will actually serve as the basic unit of organization. That is, recognizing that the relevant corpus has outgrown the bounds of a single volume, even a folio–sized volume, its three volumes are devoted respectively, to “canonical,” “monumental” and “archival” texts from the ancient Near East. Since the biblical text (in its “canonical” form) is entirely canonical in the sense in which I choose to employ that term, the reader will be immediately alerted to the categorical contrasts involved even when a comparison is suggested.
On a lower level of literary context, due attention is paid to genre (Gattung) and to the associated concept of life setting (“Sitz im Leben”). Thus, for example, within the volume devoted to “canonical” texts, the basic division is by “focus”: divine, royal, or individual, with the divine focus embracing such genres as myths, hymns, prayers, divination, incantations and rituals. Finally, the questions of where, when and in what direction an alleged borrowing may have occurred is occasionally raised in the commentary, even if the question frequently cannot be answered.
But a text is not only the product of its contemporary context, its horizontal locus, as it were, in time and space. It also has its place on a vertical axis between the earlier texts that helped inspire it and the later texts that reacted to it. We can describe this feature of its interconnectedness as its vertical or, in line with current usage, its intertextual dimension. The field of biblical studies has been rather slow to employ the term itself and the field of ancient Near Eastern studies even slower. But of course the concept as such has long been part of the stock–in–trade of both fields. Thus it is wholly appropriate to call attention to perceived instances of intertextuality both within each linguistic tradition and among separate traditions — and to do so, not in more or less random footnotes or enigmatic indices, but overtly and systematically in the margins of the translations.
The translations themselves, however, need to meet new standards if they are to serve as springboards for the recognition and designation of contextual and intertextual comparisons and contrasts. There is no need, it is true, to translate every significant text de novo, to reinvent the wheel, so to speak. But one can aspire to match the native terms and idioms with their English counterparts in such a way as to approach the ideal of a 1:1 relation in which each word (and only that word) is rendered by a given English equivalent, each derivative of that word with a derivative of that equivalent. This ideal cannot, of course, be carried out perfectly in practice, not even when the target language is German, though it was attempted with great determination by Martin Buber and Franz Rosenzweig in their translation of the Bible, nor in French, where the same principle was applied by Andre Chouraqui, and certainly not in English, where a similar effort by Everett Fox has now given us a valuable new translation of the Pentateuch.41 Nor has the method ever been applied to ancient Near Eastern texts apart from the Bible. But with the help of a data base, it should theoretically be possible — though difficult in practice — to make the attempt, and to see how many improvements emerge in the understanding, both of the text itself and of its relation to other texts.
To illustrate all the theoretical principles outlined above would take at least a half dozen examples, preferably chosen from a wide variety of ancient literary corpora. But the salient points can be illustrated adequately by one example that, for all its brevity, has a fairly wide set of evidentiary implications. The “Sumerian Sargon Legend” has been known in part since 1916 from an Uruk tablet subsequently acquired by the Louvre Museum, and was duly noted in studies of Mesopotamian historiography, notably by H. G. Güterbock in 1934. But a larger and nearly complete tablet belonging to the composition was excavated at Nippur in the season of 1951–52, assigned to the Baghdad Museum, and finally published by Jerrold Cooper and Wolfgang Heimpel in 1983. Thus nearly seventy years elapsed before the full import of the text emerged.44
Apart from sharing a common protagonist, the text as reconstituted has little or nothing to do with the better known Akkadian Sargon Legend, sometimes cited as a possible source of the Moses birth legend, though with little justification. It is in Sumerian, a product most likely of the neo–Sumerian period (ca. 2100–1800 BCE in linguistic terms), while the later text is in Akkadian, quite possibly commissioned by Sargon II of Assyria (722–705 BCE) or at least intended to celebrate his earlier namesake. The Sumerian text is, of course, not included in ANET, but as now known it includes at least one passage that bears comparison with a biblical pericope.
Lines 53–56 as translated by Cooper read:
In those days, writing on tablets certainly existed, but enveloping tablets did not exist;
King Urzababa, for Sargon, creature of the gods,
Wrote a tablet, which would cause his own death, and
He dispatched it to Lugalzagesi in Uruk.
As both editors noted, “Line 53 parodies the famous passage in Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta 503ff.” — a passage, it may be added, not without its own echoes in the biography of Moses.47 What was quickly pointed out by others, however, was that the motif of a king dispatching a potential rival to a third party carrying instructions to that party to put the rival to death so that the messenger becomes the means to his own demise, corresponds to a familiar folklore motif, with echoes not only in the Bible but also in classical literature and even in Hamlet.
In the Iliad, Bellerophon was sent to the king of Lycia with a similarly deadly message. In 2 Samuel 11, King David rid himself of Uriah with a message that Uriah carried to David’s general Joab. These parallels have been recognized in varying degrees by Herman Vanstiphout, Veronika Afanas’eva,50 and especially Bendt Alster. They show that the Uriah pericope is made up, at least in part, of traditional literary topoi or folkloristic motifs, and justify the inclusion of the newly recovered Sumerian legend in the discussion of the biblical treatment of the theme.
The most recent treatment of the Uriah pericope well illustrates the use and usefulness of ancient Near Eastern parallels for the understanding of biblical texts — if only by showing the danger of ignoring them. In “Nations and nationalism: adultery in the House of David,” Regina M. Schwartz uses the pericope to condemn not only David, his people, and all his progeny, but those who have repossessed the City of David and the land of Israel in his name to this day. The study fails, not because of its political overtones, but because it presumes the historical validity of the episode, utterly ignoring its literary character. Where but in the Bible could one find national literature preserving the materials for so scathing a self–examination? And within the Bible, where more so than in the “court history of David” in 2 Samuel? And what if the author has not written history, but woven a traditional story of the “deadly letter” into an imaginative recasting of the succession narrative? Familiarity with the motif and its antiquity would at least suggest this alternative possibility.
The Sumerian Sargon Legend well illustrates the vertical component we have spoken of, depending as it does quite clearly on the earlier Sumerian Epic of Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, and echoed as we have seen by the later stories of Uriah in 2 Samuel and Bellerophon in the Iliad. But it also illuminates the “horizontal” context of any given text. Its focus on royalty in general, and on the spectacular rise to power of Sargon of Akkad in particular, is of a piece with the literary and ideological interests of the Ur III and Isin I dynasties of the neo–Sumerian cultural era (ca. 2100–1800 BCE).
It allows us to raise the same question as one which has repeatedly been raised with regard to comparable biblical material, namely: can we, in fact should we, separate literary and ideological considerations in assessing ancient sources? Can we and should we divide our sources strictly into literary and historical ones?
I have long pleaded for using literary and historical sources to illuminate each other — treating literary sources as precious aids in reconstructing history, and reconstructing history as the essential context for literature. Recently,
Marc Brettler has come to a similar conclusion from other premises. Using the story of Ehud as his point of departure, he faults both those who, like Robert Alter, see it as “only” literature, and those who, like Baruch Halpern, see it as genuine history.
The tale of Ehud has, in fact, more in common with the Uriah pericope than at first meets the eye — including the echo of a traditional motif first associated with the great kings of the Sargonic dynasty in Mesopotamia. I refer to the assassination of a ruling monarch by an ostensibly unarmed courtier. In the Mesopotamian historiographic tradition as enshrined in its most characteristic form, the omen literature, the dastardly deed was committed by resort to the cylinder seal, or more particularly (in my opinion) to the wooden pin on which it was mounted and by which it was attached to a necklace worn by its owner; if sharpened to a point, this pin could serve as a deadly weapon when whipped off the neck and plunged into the body of the unsuspecting victim, as was apparently the fate of no less than three of the Sargonic kings: Rimush, probably his (twin?) brother Man–ishtushu, and Shar–kali–sharri. The case of Ehud, who rid Israel of its Moabite oppressor with a well–timed thrust from the dagger concealed on his right side under his cloak, is not so very different, considering the relatively greater rarity of cylinder–seals in Israel.
Thus I do not necessarily agree with Brettler in regarding the chief historical value of the Ehud story as lying in the attitude toward Moab on the part of Israel in the time of the author of the pericope (whenever that was!) that it reveals, but I agree with him in seeing the value of a concept of “literature as politics.” Such a concept had previously been recognized in Assyrian literature by Peter Machinist,56 as Brettler later acknowledged, and before that in Hittite literature by Harry Hoffner,58 and in Egyptian literature by R. J. Williams. What it implies is the rejection of any hard–and–fast dichotomy between “history” and “literature” in favor of a recognition that, often enough, history is literature, and vice versa. The old conceit held that biblical literature can be validated as history only when reflected in extra–biblical historical sources such as the Stele of Merneptah or the Mesha Stele, but is falsified as history and reduced to “mere literature” when anticipated or echoed in extra–biblical literary sources such as the Akkadian Sargon Legend or now the Sumerian Sargon Legend. This alone would justify a separation of the comparative material into historical monuments, canonical compositions, and archival documents. But the new attitude goes further. It recognizes that the assessment of a biblical text, so far from ending with the identification of an extra–biblical parallel, begins there.
In conclusion, the combination of an intertextual and a contextual approach to biblical literature holds out the promise that this millennial corpus will continue to yield new meanings on all levels: the meaning that it holds for ourselves in our own contemporary context, the meanings it has held for readers, worshippers, artists and others in the two millennia and more since the close of the canon; the meaning that it held for its own authors and the audiences of their times; and finally the meanings that it held when it was part of an earlier literary corpus. It is to the clarification of that oldest level of meaning that The Context of Scripture is dedicated. It may also serve as a memorial to Pritchard, whose death occurred on January 1, 1997, as this volume was going to press.
Canonical Compositions from the Biblical World
EGYPTIAN CANONICAL COMPOSITIONS
A. DIVINE FOCUS
1. COSMOLOGIES
FROM THE “BOOK OF NUT” (1.1)
James P. Allen
This text consists of a series of captions accompanying the image of the goddess Nut stretched out as a representation of the sky, held off the earth by the atmosphere (Shu). Originally perhaps of Middle Kingdom composition, it appears on ceilings of the cenotaph of Seti I (Dynasty 19, ca. 1291–1279 BCE) at Abydos and the tomb of Ramesses IV (Dynasty 20, ca. 1163–1156 BCE) at Thebes; the texts were also copied, with exegesis, in two Demotic papyri of the second century CE. Together, the representation and its texts describe the ancient Egyptian concept of the universe.
Outside the Cosmos (Texts Dd-Ee, on Nut’s right)
The uniform darkness, ocean2 of the gods, the place from which birds come: this is from her northwestern side up to her northeastern side, open to the Duat that is on her northern side, with her rear in the east and her head in the west. These birds exist with their faces as people and their nature as birds, one of them speaking to the other with the speech of crying.3 After they come to eat plants and to get nourished in the Black Land, alighting under the brightness of the sky, then they change into their nature of birds.
(Text L, above Nut) The upper side of this sky exists in uniform darkness, the southern, northern, western and eastern limits of which are unknown,c these having been fixed in the Waters, in inertness.4 There is no light of the Ram there: he does not appear there — (a place) whose south, north, west and east land is unknownc by the gods or akh’s, there being no brightness there. And as for every place void of sky and void of land,7 that is the entire Duat.
Description of Nut (Texts Ll, Gg, Q, and P)
Her right arm is on the northwestern side, [the left] on the [north]eastern side. Her head is the western Akhet, her mouth is the west. (The goddess’s mouth is labeled) Western Akhet, (her crotch) Eastern Akhet.
Cycle of the Sun (Texta Aa-Bb, to the winged sun-disk at Nut’s mouth)
The Incarnation of this god enters at her first hour of evening,10 becoming effective again in the embrace of his father Osiris, and becoming purified therein. The Incarnation of this god rests from life in the Duat at her second hour of pregnancy.12 Then the Incarnation of this god is governing the westerners, and giving directions in the Duat. Then the Incarnation of this god comes forth on earth again, having come into the world, young, his physical strength growing great again, like the first occasion of his original state. Then he is evolved into the great god, the winged disk. When this god sails to the limits of the basin of the sky, she causes him to enter again into night, into the middle of the night, and as he sails inside the dusk these stars are behind him. When the Incarnation of this god enters her mouth, inside the Duat, it stays open after he sails inside her, so that these sailing stars14 may enter after him and come forth after him. Where they course is to their locales.
(Texts G, F, and E, to the sun-disk before Nut’s foot)
The redness after birth, as he becomes pure in the embrace of his father Osiris. Then his father lives, as he becomes effective [again] through him, as he opens in his splitting16 and swims in his redness.
(Texts M-O, to the sun-disk on Nut’s foot)
The Incarnation of this god comes forth from her rear. Then he is on course toward the world, apparent and born. Then he produces himself above. Then he parts the thighs of his mother Nut. Then he goes away to the sky.
(Texts J-K and H, to the winged scarab at Nut’s thigh)
When the Incarnation of this god comes forth from the Duat, these stars come forth after him at the birthplace. Then he is reared in the birthplace. Then he becomes effective again through his father Osiris, in the Abydene nome, on the first occasion of his original state. Then he is evolved and goes away to the sky, in the hour of “She Has Gone to Rest.”18 Then he is dominant, having come into the world. Then his heart and his physical strength evolve. Then Geb sees the Chick, when the Sun has shown himself as he comes forth. Then he is entered into this (winged scarab).20 Then he is evolved, like his original evolving in the world on the first occasion.
REFERENCES
Frankfort 1933 I:72–86, II pl. 81; Parker 1960 I:36–94, pl. 30–51; Hornung 1972:485–86; Allen 1988a:1–9.
FROM COFFIN TEXTS SPELL 714 (1.2)
James P. Allen
This text is part of a series inscribed on coffins of the First Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom, designed to aid the deceased’s spirit in its daily journey from the Netherworld of the tomb to the world of the living. This particular spell, in which the deceased is identified with the primordial source of all matter as it first existed within the primeval waters, has so far been found only on one coffin.
The background of creation (CT VI 343j)
I am the Waters, unique, without second.
The evolution of creation (CT VI 343k-344d)
That is where I evolved,
on the great occasion of my floating that happened to me.
I am the one who once evolved —
Circlet, who is in his egg.
I am the one who began therein, (in) the Waters.
See, the Flood is subtracted from me:
see, I am the remainder.
I made my body evolve through my own effectiveness.
I am the one who made me.
I built myself as I wished, according to my heart.
REFERENCES
CT VI 343j-344d; Faulkner 1977:270; Allen 1988a:13–14.
FROM PYRAMID TEXTS SPELL 527 (1.3)
James P. Allen
The Pyramid Texts were inscribed on the walls of the substructures of royal pyramids at the end of the Old Kingdom, with the same purpose as their descendants, the Coffin Texts. This spell begins by describing the material derivation of the first two elements of the world — the atmospheres above and below the earth (Shu and Tefnut) — from the single source of all matter (Atum), as a “mythological precedent” for the daily rebirth of the deceased king.
The birth of Shu and Tefnut from Atum (Pyr. 1248)
Atum evolved growing ithyphallic,2 in Heliopolis. He put his penis in his grasp that he might make orgasm with it, and the two siblings were born — Shu and Tefnut.
REFERENCES
Pyr. 1248a-d; Faulkner 1969:198; Allen 1988a:13–14.
FROM PYRAMID TEXTS SPELL 600 (1.4)
James P. Allen
The beginning of this spell, another “mythological precedent,” combines three images of the first moments of creation. The first lines invokes the divine source of all matter (Atum) in his evolution as the sun (“Scarab”) and the world-space within the primeval waters. This is followed by references to the “etymological” origin of Shu and Tefnut and to the source of their life force.
Atum as the First Things (Pyr. 1652–1653a)
Atum Scarab!
When you became high, as the high ground,
when you rose, as the benben in the Phoenix3 Enclosure in Heliopolis,
you sneezed Shu, you spat Tefnut,
and you put your arms about them, as the arms of ka,
that your ka might be in them.
REFERENCES
Pyr. 1652a–1653a; Faulkner 1969:246–247; Allen 1988a:13–14.
FROM COFFIN TEXTS SPELL 75 (1.5)
James P. Allen
Spells 75–81 of the Coffin Texts, which identify the deceased as a manifestation (ba) of the first element of the world (Shu), are a major source for the evolutionary view of creation promulgated in Heliopolis. In at least two MSS (S1C and S2C), these seven spells were treated as a single text, with the title “Spell of the ba of Shu and evolution into Shu” (CT I 314a). Spell 75, one of the most frequently copied of all Coffin Texts, describes the birth of Shu. In the cosmogony of Heliopolis, this is the first stage in the evolution of Atum that produced the created world.
Shu’s relationship to Atum (CT I 314/315b–326/327a)
I am the ba of Shu, the self-evolving2 god:
it is in the body of the self-evolving god that I have evolved.
I am the ba of Shu, the god mysterious (?) of form:
it is in the body of the self-evolving god that I have become tied together.
I am the utmost extent of the self-evolving god:
it is in him that I have evolved.
I am the one who stills the sky for him,
I am the one who silences the earth for him. a
I am the one who foretells him when he emerges from the Akhet,
putting fear of him into those who seek his identity.
I am one who is millions, who hears the affairsof millions.
I am the one who transmits the word of the self-evolving god to his multitude.
I am the one who officiates over his boat-crew,
being stronger and more raging than every Ennead.
The origin of Shu (CT I 326/327b–338/339b)
The speech of the original gods, who evolved after me, has been repeated to me, when they asked of the Waters my evolution, seeing my strength in the great boat that the self-evolving god sails, and how I have acted9 among them, causing my reputation according to my evolution.
I shall speak. Become still, Ennead! Become silent, gods, and I will tell you my evolution myself. Don’t ask my evolution of the Waters.
When the Waters saw me, I was already evolved. He does not know where I evolved. He did not see with his face how I evolved.
It is in the body of the great self-evolving god that I have evolved,
for he created me in his heart,
made me in his effectiveness,
and exhaled me from his nose.
Shu’s nature (CT I 338/339c–344/345c and 354/355b–358/359a)
I am exhale-like of form,
created by that august self-evolving god
who strews the sky with his perfection,
the total of the gods’ forms,
whose identity the gods who sail him do not know,
whom the “sunfolk” follow.
It is in his feet that I have grown,
in his arms that I have evolved,
in his limbs that I have made a void.
He created me himself in his heart,
he made me in his effectiveness.
I was not born by birth.
…
I am one exhale-like of form.
He did not give me birth with his mouth,
he did not conceive me with his fist.
He exhaled me from his nose,
he made me in the midst of his perfection,
which excites those who are in the inaccessible places
when he strews the sky with his perfection.
Shu’s relationship to the rest of creation (CT I 372/373b–376/377c, 384b–385c, and 405b-c)
I do not have to listen to magic:
I evolved before it.
My clothes are the wind of life: c
it came forth about me, from the mouth of Atum.
I evolved in the god who evolved on his own,
alone, older than the gods.
I am the one who touches for him the height of the sky.d
I am the one who brings to him his effectiveness,
who unites for him his million of ka placed in protection of his associates.
…
For it is through creation in its entirety that I evolved,
at the utterance of that august self-evolving god
who does not turn back on what he has said. e
For I am the one who made to the limit, according to his command.
…
I am the god mysterious (?) of form,
but I am in the utmost extent of sunlight.
REFERENCES
CT I 314/315b–405c; de Buck 1947; Faulkner 1964; Zandee 1971–72; Faulkner 1973:72–77; Allen 1988a:14–18.
FROM COFFIN TEXTS SPELL 76 (1.6)
James P. Allen
This text continues the tale of Shu’s birth by describing how the structure of the world-space and its contents derive from the initial creation of the atmosphere. It also contains one of the first references to the four negative qualities of the primordial waters, later developed by the theologians of Hermopolis into a cosmogony of four divine couples, the Ogdoad.
Initial invocation: the deceased as Shu (II 1a–2a)
O you eight Infinite Ones, who are at the parts of the sky,a
whom Shu made from the efflux of his limbs,
who tie together the ladder for Atum!
Come to meet your father in me!
Give me your arms,
tie together a ladder for me.
I am the one who created you,
I am the one who made you,
as I was made by my father Atum.
Shu’s nature (CT II 2b–3c)
I am weary at the Uplifting of Shu,
since I lifted my daughter Nut atop me
that I might give her to my father Atum in his utmost extent.
I have put Geb under my feet:
this god is tying together the land for my father Atum,
and drawing together the Great Flood for him.
I have put myself between them
without the Ennead seeing me.
Shu’s birth (CT II 3d–4d)
It is I who am Shu,
whom Atum created on the day that he evolved.
I was not built in the womb,
I was not tied together in the egg,
I was not conceived by conception.
My father Atum sneezed me in a sneeze of his mouth,
together with my sister Tefnut.
She emerged after me,
while I was still hooded with the air of the Phoenix’s throat,
on the day that Atum evolved —
out of the Flood, out of the Waters,
out of darkness, out of lostness. c
Shu’s relationship to the gods (CT II 5a–6b)
It is I who am Shu, father of the gods,
in search of whom, together with my sister Tefnut,
Atum once sent his Sole Eye.
I am the one who made brightening the darkness possible for it.
It found me as a man of infinite number:
I am the begetter of repeated millions —
out of the Flood, out of the Waters,
out of darkness, out of lostness.
It is I who am Shu, begetter of the gods.
REFERENCES
CT II 1a–6b; Faulkner 1973:77–80; Zandee 1973a; Allen 1988a:18–21.
FROM COFFIN TEXTS SPELL 78 (1.7)
James P. Allen
This text follows Coffin Texts Spell 76 after a few lines (Spell 77) that describe the birth of Shu through the combined metaphors of masturbation and spitting. The major theme in Spell 78 is the identification of this event with the evolution of Time in its two aspects: the permanent pattern of existence, identified with Tefnut; and the eternal repetition of life, identified with Shu.
Shu as the atmosphere (CT II 19a-b)
I am the ba of Shu,
to whom was given Nut atop him and Geb under his feet.
I am between them.
Shu as the cycle of time (CT II 22a-b)
I am Eternal Recurrence, father of an infinite number.
My sister is Tefnut, daughter of Atum, who bore the Ennead.
Tefnut as the pattern of time (CT II 23a-c)
I am the one who bore repeated millions for Atum:
Eternal Sameness is (my sister) Tefnut.
REFERENCES
CT II 19a–23c; Faulkner 1973:81–82; Zandee 1973b; Allen 1988a:21–27.
FROM COFFIN TEXTS SPELL 80 (1.8)
James P. Allen
Following a short reprise of Spell 76 (Spell 79), this text continues the temporal theme first sounded in Spell 78 and expands it through the additional concepts of Life, identified with Shu, and the natural Order of the universe, associated with Tefnut. As part of its exposition, the spell concentrates on the notion of the One (Atum) evolving into the multiplicity of life. This includes the phenomenon of generational death and rebirth (codified in Osiris and Isis), the creation of people, and the interrelationship of all living things. The spell’s physical description of Shu as the atmosphere is one of the clearest statements of the Egyptian concept of divinity immanent in the elements of nature. Together with a short summation (Spell 81), this text completes the theological exposition of the meaning of Shu’s birth that began in Spell 75.
Introduction (CT II 23d–28d)
O you eight Infinite Ones — an infinite number of Infinite Ones,
who encircle the sky with your arms,
who draw together the sky and horizon of Geb!
Shu has given you birth
out of the Flood, out of the Waters,
out of lostness, out of darkness, a
that he might allot you to Geb and Nut,
Shu being Eternal Recurrence,
and Tefnut, Eternal Sameness.
The nature of Shu (CT II 28e–32a)
I am the ba of Shu, who is at the Great Flood,
who goes up to the sky as he wishes,
who goes down to the earth as his heart decides.
Come in excitement to greet the god in me!
I am Shu, child of Atum.
My clothing is the air of life,
which emerged for it around me, from the mouth of Atum
and opens for it the winds on my path.
I am the one who made possible the sky’s brilliance after the Darkness.
My skin is the pressure of the wind,
which emerged behind me from the mouth of Atum.
My efflux is the storm-cloud9 of the sky,
my fumes are the storm9 of half-light.
The length of the sky is for my strides,
and the breadth of the earth is for my foundations.
I am the one whom Atum created,
and I am bound for my place of Eternal Sameness.
It is I who am Eternal Recurrence,
who bore repeated millions;
whom Atum sneezed,
who emerged from his mouth,
as he used his hand that he desired, in order to let fall for the earth.
The origin of Shu and Tefnut (CT II 32b-35h)
Then said Atum:
My living daughter is Tefnut.
She will exist with her brother Shu.
Life is his identity,
Order is her identity.
I shall live with my twins, my fledglings,
with me in their midst —
one of them at my back,
one of them in my belly.
Life will lie with my daughter Order —
one of them inside me,
one of them about me.
It is on them that I have come to rely,
with their arms about me.
It is my son who shall live,
he whom I begot in my identity,
for he has learned how to enliven the one in the egg, in the respective womb,
as people, that emerged from my eye —
(the eye) that I sent forth when I was alone with the Waters, in inertness,
not finding a place in which I could stand or sit,
before Heliopolis had been founded, in which I could exist;
before the Lotus had been tied together, on which I could sit;
before I had made Nut so she could be over my head and Geb could marry her;
before the first Corps was born,
before the original Ennead had evolved and started existing with me.
Then said Atum to the Waters:
I am floating, very weary, the natives inert.18
It is my son Life, who lifts up my heart, that will enliven my heart
when he has drawn together these very weary limbs of mine.
The Waters said to Atum:
Kiss your daughter Order.
Put her to your nose and your heart will live.
They will not be far from you —
that is, your daughter Order and your son Shu, whose identity is Life.
It is of your daughter Order that you shall eat,
it is your son Shu that shall elevate you.
Shu as Life (CT II 35i-36e and 39b–40b)
I, in fact, am Life, son of Atum —
from his nose he bore me,
from his nostrils I emerged.
I shall put myself at his collar,
that he may kiss me and my sister Order,
when he rises every day and emerges from his egg,
when the god is born in the emergence of sunlight
and homage is said to him by those whom he begot.
…
I am Life, lord of years,
Life of Eternal Recurrence, lord of Eternal
Sameness —
the eldest that Atum made with his effectiveness,
when he gave birth to Shu and Tefnut in Heliopolis,
when he was one and evolved into three,
when he parted Geb from Nut,
before the first Corps was born,
before the two original Enneads evolved and were existing with me.
In his nose he conceived me,
from his nostrils I emerged.
He has placed me at his collar
and he does not let me get far from him.
The process of Life (CT II 40c-43h)
My identity is Life, son of the original god:
I live in the … (?) of my father Atum.
I am Life at his collar, the one who freshens the throat —
whom Atum made as Grain when he sent me down to this land,
and to the Isle of Fires, when my identity became Osiris, son of Geb.
I am Life, for whom the length of the sky and the breadth of Geb were made:
it is from me that presented offerings emerge for the god.
My father Atum will kiss me as he emerges from the eastern Akhet;
his heart will rest at seeing me as he proceeds in rest to the western Akhet.
He will find me on his way,
and I will tie on his head and enliven his uraeus.
I will fix the head of Isis on her neck,
and assemble Osiris’s bones.
I will make firm his flesh every day
and make fresh his parts every day —
falcons living off birds, jackals off prowling,
pigs off the highlands, hippopotami off the cultivation,
men off grain, crocodiles off fish,
fish off the waters in the Inundation e —
as Atum has ordered.
I will lead them and enliven them,
through my mouth, which is Life in their nostrils.
I will lead my breath into their throats,
after I have tied on their heads by the Annunciation that is in my mouth,
which my father Atum, who emerged from the eastern Akhet, has given me.
I will enliven the little fish and the crawling things on Geb’s back.
I, in fact, am Life that is under Nut.
REFERENCES
CT II 27d-43h; Faulkner 1973:83–87; Zandee 1974; Allen 1988a:21–27.
FROM PAPYRUS BREMNER-RHIND (1.9)
James P. Allen
The papyrus from which this text is taken (pBM 10188) is a collection of theological treatises and magic spells against the dangers of the Netherworld (represented in sum by the demon Apophis), compiled from various sources at the beginning of the Ptolemaic Period. This selection, originally composed perhaps as early as the Ramesside Period, describes the evolution of multiplicity from the unity of Atum, who is both the “Lord to the Limit” (of the created world) and the sun at the dawn of creation (“Evolver”). It is unusual for its use of abstract terminology, based on the verb ḫpr “evolve,” in addition to the physical metaphors that Egyptian theologians regularly used to describe the process of creation.
Title (26, 21) SCROLL OF KNOWING THE EVOLUTION of the Sun AND OF OVERTHROWING APOPHIS. RECITATION.
Evolution of the many from the one (26, 21–24)
The Lord to the Limit, speaking after he evolved:
I am the one who evolved as Evolver.
When I evolved, evolution evolved.
All evolution evolved after I evolved,
evolutions becoming many in emerging from my mouth,
without the sky having evolved,
without the earth having evolved,
without the ground or snakes having been created in that place.
I became tied together in them out of the Waters, out of inertness,
without having found a place in which I could stand.
I became effective in my heart,
I surveyed with my face.
I made every form alone,
without having sneezed Shu,
without having spat Tefnut,
without another having evolved and acted with me.
I surveyed in my heart by myself
and the evolutions of evolutions became many,
in the evolutions of children
and in the evolutions of their children.
The first generation (26, 24–27, 2)
I am the one who acted as husband with my fist:
I copulated with my hand,
I let fall into my own mouth,
I sneezed Shu and spat Tefnut.
It is my father, the Waters, that tended them,
with my Eye after them since the time they became apart from me.
After I evolved as one god,
that was three gods with respect to me.
The sun (27, 2–4)
When I evolved into this world,
Shu and Tefnut grew excited in the inert waters in which they were,
and brought me my Eye after them.
And after I joined together my parts,
I wept over them:
that is the evolution of people,
from the tears that came from my Eye.
She raged against me after she returned
and found I had made another in her place
to replace her as (my) effective one.
So I promoted her place on my face,
and afterward she began to rule this entire land.
When their rage fell to their roots
I replaced what she had taken from her.
The creation of multiplicity (27, 4–6)
When I emerged from the roots
I created all the snakes and everything that evolved from them. c
Then Shu and Tefnut gave birth to Geb and Nut.
Then Geb and Nut gave birth to Osiris, Horus Fore-Eyed, Seth, Isis and Nephthys,
from one womb, (one) after the other,
and they gave birth to their multitude in this world.
REFERENCES
Faulkner 1933:59, 15–61, 12; Faulkner 1937:172–73; Faulkner 1938:41–42; ANET 6–7; Piankoff 1955:24; Sauneron 1959):48–51; Allen 1988a:28–30.
FROM COFFIN TEXTS SPELL 335 = BOOK OF THE DEAD SPELL 17 (1.10)
James P. Allen
This spell, the most frequently copied of all major Egyptian funerary texts, equates the deceased’s passage from the tomb to daylight with the sun’s journey from night to day, a theme summarized in its title. It originated in the Coffin Texts and was subsequently incorporated in their New Kingdom descendant, the so-called Book of the Dead, which was known by the same title. Almost from its inception, the spell accumulated extensive glosses on the original text. The excerpt below contains its opening lines along with the most important of their glosses from both the Coffin Texts and Book of the Dead. The text deals with the concept of the sunrise as both the culminating act of Atum’s evolution and the determining factor in the newly-created world.
Title (CT IV 184/185a)
SPELL FOR EMERGING BY DAY IN THE NECROPOLIS.
Introduction (CT IV 184/185b–186/187a)
The word evolved, totality was mine when I existed alone.
The first sunrise (CT IV 186/187b)
I am the Sun in his first appearances.
Glosses (CT IV 187d-f, BD 17)
CT That is him rising in the east of the sky. Variant: it is the beginning of the Sun appearing over the world.
BD Who then is he? It is the Sun when he began the reign he has exercised. It is the Sun’s beginning to appear in the kingship he has exercised, when Shu’s uplifting had not yet evolved and he was on the high ground in Hermopolis, when the children of exhaustion6 had been given to him as the Hermopolitans.
The sun as Atum (CT IV 188/189a–190/191b)
I am the great self-evolving god,
Glosses (CT IV 188/189b-c, BD 17)
CT Who is he, the great self-evolving one? It is water: it is the Waters, father of the gods.
BD Variant: it is the Sun.
who created his identities, lord of the Enneads,
Glosses (BD 17)
BD Who then is he? It is the Sun when he created the identities of his parts. It is those gods who are after him evolving.
the unopposable one of the gods.
Glosses (CT IV 191c-d, BD 17)
CT Who is it? It is Atum in his disk.
BD Variant: it is the Sun rising in the eastern Akhet of the sky.
The sun determines time (CT IV 192/193a)
Yesterday is mine; I know tomorrow.
Glosses (CT IV 192/193b-c and 193d-f, BD 17)
CT As for yesterday, it is Osiris; as for tomorrow, it is the Sun. Who is it? The day of We Are Enduring. It is the burial of Osiris and causing his son Horus to rule.
BD Who then is he? As for yesterday, it is Osiris; as for tomorrow, it is the Sun, on the day when the enemies of the Lord to the Limit were destroyed and his son Horus was caused to rule. Variant: It is the day of We Are Enduring. It is the burial of Osiris being directed by his father the Sun.
The sun establishes order (CT IV 194/195a–196/197a)
The gods’ battleship/battleplace was made in accordance with my say.
Glosses (CT IV 194/195b-d, BD 17)
CT As for the god’s battleplace, it is the West. It was made in order to battle the gods’ enemies.
BD What then is it? It is the West. It was made for the gods’ ba’s in accordance with the command of Osiris, lord of the western cemetery. Variant: It is the West. This is what the Sun caused every god to descend to. Then he fought it for them.
I know the identity of that great god who is in it.
Glosses (CT IV 196/197c, BD 17)
CT The Acclaimed, the Sun, is his identity.
BD Who then is he? It is Osiris. Variant: the Acclaimed, the Sun, is his identity. It is the ba of the Sun, by means of which he himself copulates.
The sun as the determinant of all things (CT IV 198/199a–200/201a)
I am the great Phoenix that is in Heliopolis,
the accountant of that which exists.
Glosses (CT IV 200b–203b)17
CT Who then is he? It is Osiris. As for that which exists, it is Eternal Recurrence and Eternal Sameness. As for Eternal Recurrence, it is day; as for Eternal Sameness, it is night.
REFERENCES
CT IV 184/185a–201f; Faulkner 1973:262–269; Rößler-Köhler 1979:157–158, 212–215; Allen 1988a:30–35.
COFFIN TEXTS SPELL 261 (1.11)
James P. Allen
While the Heliopolitan accounts of creation concentrate primarily on the material origins of the world, they also acknowledge the role played by magic, the divine force that translated the creator’s will into reality. In Egyptian thought, magic has two components: conceptualization (“Perception”), which takes place in the heart; and Annunciation, the creative expression of a thought through the medium of the spoken word. Spell 261 of the Coffin Texts identifies the deceased with this force; as such, it presents a good exposition of the role that magic played in the creation.2
Title (CT III 382a)
EVOLVING INTO MAGIC.
Invocation (CT III 382b-d)
O noble ones who are before the Lord of Totality!
Behold, I am come to you.
Be afraid of me, in accordance with what you have learned.
The role of Magic (CT III 382e–387b)
I am the one whom the Sole Lord made
before two things had evolved in this world,
when he sent his sole eye,7
when he was one,
when something came from his mouth,
when his million of ka was in protection of his associates,
when he spoke with the one who evolved with him, than whom he is mightier,
when he took Annunciation in his mouth.
I, in fact, am that son of Bore-All,
and I am the protection of that which the Sole Lord commanded.
I am the one who gave life to the Ennead.
I am Acts-As-He-Likes, father of the gods, high of stand,
who made the god functional in accordance with that which Bore-All commanded,
a noble god, who speaks and eats with his mouth.
The status of Magic (CT III 387c–389e)
Become still for me!
Bow down to me!
I have come to tread on the bulls of the sky and sit on the bulls of the sky
in my great rank of Lord of Ka’s, the heir of Atum.
I have come to take my seat and receive my rank.
All was mine before you evolved, gods. a
Go down, you who came at the end!
I am Magic.
REFERENCES
CT III 382a–389e; te Velde 1970:180; Faulkner 1973:199–201; Allen 1988a:37–38; Ritner 1993:17.
FROM COFFIN TEXTS SPELL 647 (1.12)
James P. Allen
The conceptual link between the creator’s fiat and its material realization in the forces and elements of the world was conceptualized by the theologians of Memphis in the creative role of their god Ptah. The earliest exposition of this theology appears in Spell 647 of the Coffin Texts. Attested in only one copy, it is a long spell identifying the deceased with all aspects of the Memphite god. The excerpts below concern Ptah’s role in the creation.
Title (CT VI 267a)
PROTECTION THROUGH PTAH.
Ptah’s etiology (CT VI 267f-s)
Thus said Atum:
“Let my vertebra be fixed,
let my egg be firm on the vertebrae of the Great Flood.
Oh, oh, my son!
How good is your disposition,
how creative is he whom I have begotten!”
That is the evolution of my identity of Ptah,
good of disposition, great of strength.
“He to whom report is made in the palace of the lord of life,
to whom his places report,
for whom his ranks are promoted beyond those greater than him,”
said Perception about me.
That is the evolution of my identity of helper,
lord of order, Scribe at the fore of the Great House.
Order is excited at my command [for] life and dominion.
Thoth is on my “great flood” against that from which my pen is barred,
there being nothing the gods can do.
Ptah establishes order (CT VI 267t-268b)
I am one noble in his place,
who is in the heart of the Lord of the Shrine.
I emerge from and enter into the shrine of the Lord to the Limit,
elevating Order on the offering-slab of Shu and him in the sarcophagus,
causing the Sound Eye to enter,
punishing disorder in the council,
and driving off the Sun’s abomination from his boat,
while every god is exalting me,
every akh is in awe of me,
and the subjects are worshipping my goodness.
Ptah governs all life (CT VI 268c-o, 269j-k, and 269r-u)
I am the one who makes plants grow,
who makes green the shores of the Nile Valley;
lord of desert lands, who makes green the wadis,
chief of the Nubians, Asiatics, and Libyans.
The Nine Bows have been netted for me,
and totality has been given me by the Sun, Lord to the Limit.
I am South of His Wall, sovereign of the gods.
I am king of the sky,
distributor of ka’s, who officiates over the Two Lands;
distributor of ka’s, who gives ba’s, manifestations,15 ka’s, and beginnings.
I am distributor of ka’s, and they live according to my action:
when I wish, I make it possible for them to live,
there being none of them who can speak to me
except for [the one who made] that unique identity of mine,
because I am Annunciation in his mouth and Perception in his body.
…
I emerge from and enter into [the shrine of the Lord] to the Limit,
telling him the conduct of the Two Lands
in accordance with how I make it possible for them to live there,
…
giving life and conducting gifts to the gods who have offerings.
It is I who am lord of life, who officiates in Nut,
while Seth is my escort because he knows the conduct of what I do.
I am the lord of life.
REFERENCES
CT VI 267a, 267f-268o, 269j-k/r-u; Faulkner 1977:221–23; Allen 1988a:38–42.
FROM A RAMESSIDE STELA (1.13)
James P. Allen
In the Middle Kingdom Coffin Texts, the creative role of Ptah is clearly secondary to that of Atum, the material source of creation. In the New Kingdom, however, it evolved into a full cosmogony in its own right, combining the intellectual principle of Ptah with the material role of Ta-tenen (“Rising Land”), the deified Primeval Hill representing the first instance of created matter. One of the most concise expositions of this Memphite system appears on a private stela of the Ramesside Period, now in Copenhagen (GNC 897/AEIN 54).
Introduction (col. 1)
Yours truly is worshipping your perfection,
great Ptah, South of His Wall,
Ta-tenen in the midst of the Walls.
Ptah as creator (cols. 1–4)
Noble god of the first occasion,
who built people and gave birth to the gods,
original one who made it possible for all to live;
in whose heart it was spoken, who saw them evolve,
who foretold what was not and thought of what is.
There is nothing that has evolved without him,
he whose evolution is their evolution in the course of each day,
anterior to what he has determined.
Ptah as king (cols. 4–5)
You have set the world to its laws as you made it,
and the Black Land is fixed under your command, like the first occasion.
REFERENCES
Koefoed-Petersen 1936:57; Koefoed-Petersen 1948:37 and pl. 37A; Assmann 1975b:466; Allen 1988a:38–42.
FROM THE BERLIN “HYMN TO PTAH” (1.14)
James P. Allen
Although much of what we know about Egyptian cosmogony derives from funerary compositions such as the Pyramid Texts, Coffin Texts, and Book of the Dead, informative reflections of these creation accounts are also preserved in hymns designed for use in daily temple rituals. One such hymn to Ptah, preserved on a papyrus from the reign of Ramesses IX now in Berlin (pBerl. 3048), is an important source for the Memphite cosmogony centered on the creative role of Ptah Ta-tenen.
Introduction (2, 1–2 and 3, 1–2)
Worshipping Ptah, father of the [god]s,
Ta-tenen, eldest of the originals, [at] daybreak.
[Recitation]:
Greetings, Ptah, father of the gods,
Ta-tenen, eldest of the originals,
…
who begot himself by himself, without any evolving having evolved;
who [craf]ted the world in the design of his heart;
evolution of his evolutions,
model who gave birth to all that is,
begetter who created what exists.
Ptah as creator (4, 3–5, 1)
PHARAOH has come before you, Ptah:
he has come before you, god distinguished of form.
Greetings before your originals,
whom you made after you evolved in the god’s body,
(you) who built his body by himself,
without the earth having evolved, without the sky having evolved,
without the waters having been introduced.
You tied together the world, you totalled your flesh,
you took account of your parts and found yourself alone,
place-maker, god who smelted a the Two Lands.
There is no father of yours who begot you in your evolving,
no mother of yours who gave you birth:
your own Uniter, b
active one who came forth active.
When you stood up on the land in its inertness,
it drew together thereafter,
you being in your form of Ta-tenen,
in your evolution of the one who totals the Two Lands.
The one whom your mouth begot and your arms have created —
you took him from the Waters,
your action modelling your perfection:
your son, distinguished in his evolving,
who dispels for you the uniform darkness with the radiance of his two eyes.12
Ptah’s character (11, 4–8)
O be fearful of him, O be afraid of him —
this god who made your needs.
Give adulation to his might
and become content in the presence of his two sound eyes.
Since his words are the balance of the Two Lands,
there is no bypassing the utterance he has made.
The great identity that lays storms,
which [every] face fears when his ba [e]volves;
magic that has control of the gods,
whose respect is great in the Ennead:
the reckoning [of him] is in what he has begun,
his control is among that which he has made.
REFERENCES
Möller 1905:36–46; Wolf 1929; Sauneron 1953; Assmann 1975b:322–33; Allen 1988a:38–42.
FROM THE “MEMPHITE THEOLOGY” (1.15)
James P. Allen
Perhaps the most famous of all Egyptian creation accounts is preserved on a worn slab of black granite, created for erection in the temple of Ptah at Memphis during the reign of the Nubian pharaoh Shabaqo and now in the British Museum (BM 498). As its dedicatory text records, the stone was purportedly inscribed in order to preserve a much older document, probably on papyrus or leather; lacunae deliberately incorporated in the copy support this claim. For a long time the original was thought to derive from the Old Kingdom or even earlier, but advances in our understanding of Egyptian grammar and theology have now made a date in the Nineteenth Dynasty more likely. The text is remarkable not only for its history but more importantly for the content of its closing section, translated here.
Dedication (line 2)
His Incarnation copied this writing anew in the house of his father Ptah South of His Wall,3 when His Incarnation found it as something that the predecessors had made, worm-eaten and unknown from beginning to end. Then [His Incarnation] copied [it] anew — and it is better than its former state — for the sake of his name enduring and making his monuments last in the house of his father Ptah South of His Wall, for the length of eternity, as something that the Son of Re [SHABAQO] did for his father Ptah Ta-tenen that he might achieve given life eternally.
Creation by thought and expression (cols. 53–56)
There was evolution into Atum’s image through both the heart and the tongue. And great6 and important is Ptah, who gave life to all the [gods] and their ka’s as well through this heart and this tongue, as which Horus and Thoth have both evolved by means of Ptah.
It has evolved that heart and tongue have control of [all] limb[s], show[ing] that he is preeminent in every body and in every mouth — of all the gods, all people, all animals, and all crawling things that live — planning and governing everything he wishes.
His Ennead is before him, in teeth and lips — that seed and those hands of Atum: (for) Atum’s Ennead evolv[ed] through his seed and his fingers, but the Ennead is teeth and lips in this mouth that pronounced the identity of everything, and from which Shu and Tefnut emerged and gave birth to the Ennead.
The eyes’ seeing, the ears’ hearing, the nose’s breathing of air send up (information) to the heart, and the latter is what causes every conclusion to emerge; a it is the tongue that repeats what the heart plans.
The result of creation (cols. 56–58)
So were all the gods born, Atum and his Ennead as well, for it is through what the heart plans and the tongue commands that every divine speech has evolved.
So were the male life-principles made and the female life-principles set in place b — they who make all food and every offering — through that word that makes what is loved and what is hated.14
So has life been given to him who has calm and death given to him who has wrongdoing. c
So was made all construction and all craft, the hands’ doing, the feet’s going, and every limb’s movement, according as he governs that which the heart plans, which emerges through the tongue, and which facilitates everything.
The role of Ptah (cols. 58–61)
It has evolved that Ptah is called “He who made totality and caused the gods to evolve,” since he is Ta-tenen, who gave birth to the gods, from whom everything has emerged — offerings and food, gods’ offerings, and every good thing. So is it found understood18 that his physical strength is greater than the gods’.
So has Ptah come to rest after his making everything and every divine speech19 as well, having given birth to the gods, having made their towns, having founded their nomes, having set the gods in their cult-places, having made sure their bread-offerings, having founded their shrines, having modelled their bodies to what contents them. So have the gods entered their bodies — of everykind of wood, every kind of mineral, every kind of fruit, everything that grows all over him, in which they have evolved.
So were gathered to him all the gods and their ka’s as well, content and united in the lord of the Two Lands.
REFERENCES
Breasted 1902; Erman 1911; Sethe 1928:1–80; Junker 1939; ANET 4–6; Sauneron 1959:62–64; Lichtheim 1973:51–57; Allen 1988a:42–47.
FROM PAPYRUS LEIDEN I 350 (1.16)
James P. Allen
While the cosmogonies of Heliopolis and Memphis were concerned with the material source and the means of creation, respectively, that of Thebes was devoted to its ultimate cause, the creator himself, conceptualized in the god Amun. Among the many texts of New Kingdom and later date describing the role of Amun in the creation, the most extensive is that preserved on a papyrus from the end of Ramesses II’s reign, now in Leiden (I 350). It is divided into a series of eulogies, artificially numbered as “chapters,” each dealing with a different aspect of the god. The five “chapters” excerpted below deal most directly with Amun’s nature and his role as creator.
Amun as self-generating (2, 25–28)
40TH CHAPTER.
The one who crafted himself, whose appearance is unknown.
Perfect aspect, who evolved into a sacred emanation.
Who built his processional images and created himself by himself.
Perfect icon, whom his heart made perfect.
Who tied his fluid together with his body
to bring about his egg in his secret interior.
Evolution of evolution, model of birth.
Who finished himself in proper order,
[…] who crafted 40.
Amun as the source of all evolution (3, 22–28)
80TH CHAPTER.
The Hermopolitans were your first evolution
until you completed these, while you were alone.
Your body was secreted among the elders,
you hiding yourself as Amun, at the head of the gods.
You made your evolution into Ta-tenen,
in order to cause the original ones to be born from your first original state.
Your perfection was raised aloft as Bull of His Mother,
and you distanced yourself as the one in the sky, fixed in the sun.
You are come in fathers, maker of their sons,
in order to make functional heirs for your children.
You began evolution with nothing,
without the world being empty of you on the first occasion.
All gods are evolved after you,
[…].
Amun as the source of creation (3, 28–4, 8)
[90TH CHAPTER].
The Ennead is combined in your body:
your image is every god, joined in your person.
You emerged first, you began from the start.
Amun, whose identity is hidden a from the gods;
oldest elder, more distinguished than these.
Ta-tenen, who smelted [himself] by himself, in Ptah:
the toes of his body are the Hermopolitans.
Who appeared in the Sun, from the Waters, that he might rejuvenate.
Who sneezed, [as Atum, from] his [mouth,
and gave birth to] Shu and Tefnut combined in manifestation.
Who appears on his throne as his heart prompts,
who rules for himself all that is, in his [disk].
Who ties together for himself the kingship of Eternal Recurrence,
down to Eternal Sameness, permanent as Sole Lord.
Light was his evolution on the first occasion,
with all that exists in stillness for awe of him.
He honked by voice, as the Great Honker,
at the District, creating for himself while he was alone.
He began speaking in the midst of stillness,
opening every eye and causing them to look.
He began crying out while the world was in stillness,
his yell in circulation while he had no second,
that he might give birth to what is and cause them to live,
and cause every person to know the way to walk.
Their hearts live when they see him.
His are the effective forms of the Ennead.
Amun as pre-existing (4, 9–11)
100TH CHAPTER.
Who began evolution on the first occasion.
Amun, who evolved in the beginning, with his emanation unknown,
no god evolving prior to him,
no other god with him to tell of his appearance,
there being no mother of his for whom his name was made,
and no father of his who ejaculated him so as to say “It is I.”
Who smelted his egg by himself.
Icon secret of birth, creator of his (own) perfection.
Divine god, who evolved by himself
and every god evolved since he began himself.
Amun as transcendent (4, 12–21)
200TH CHAPTER.
Secret of evolution (but) glittering of forms,
wonderful god of many evolutions.
All gods boast in him,
in order to magnify themselves in his perfection, like his divinity.
The Sun himself is joined with his person.
It is he who is the Great One in Heliopolis,
who is also called Ta-tenen.
Amun, who emerged from the Waters that he might lead everyone.
Another of his evolutions is the Hermopolitans.
Original one who begot the original ones and caused the Sun to be born,
completing himself in Atum, one body with him.
It is he who is the Lord to the Limit, who began existence.
His ba, they say, is the one who is in the sky.
It is he who is the one who is in the Duat, foremost of the east.
His ba is in the sky, his body in the west,
and his cult-image in Southern Heliopolis, elevating his appearances.
Amun is one, hiding himself from them.
He is concealed from the gods, and his aspect is unknown.
He is farther than the sky, he is deeper than the Duat. d
No god knows his true appearance,
no processional image of his is unfolded through inscriptions,
no one testifies to him accurately.
He is too secret to uncover his awesomeness,
he is too great to investigate, too powerful to know.
Instantaneously falling face to face into death
is for the one who expresses his secret identity, unknowingly or knowingly.35
There is no god who knows how to invoke him with it.
Manifest one whose identity is hidden, inasmuch as it is inaccessible.36
Amun as One (4, 21–26)
300TH CHAPTER.
All the gods are three:
Amun, the Sun, and Ptah, without their seconds.
His identity is hidden in Amun,
his is the Sun as face, his body is Ptah.
Their towns are on earth, fixed for Eternal Recurrence:
Thebes, Heliopolis, and Memphis, unto Eternal Sameness.
When a message is sent from the sky, it is heard in Heliopolis,
and repeated in Memphis to (Ptah) of good disposition,
put in a report, in Thoth’s writing,
for the town of Amun, bearing their concerns,
and the matter is answered in Thebes
by an Oracle emerging, intended for the Ennead.40
Everything that comes from his — Amun’s — mouth,
the gods are bound by it, according to what has been decreed.
When a message is sent, whether for killing or for giving life,
life or death are in it for everyone
except him — Amun together with the Sun [and Ptah:] total, 3.
REFERENCES
Gardiner 1905; Erman 1923; Zandee 1947; Fecht 1964:46–52; Assmann 1975b:312–21; Allen 1988a:48–55.
FROM COFFIN TEXTS SPELL 1130 (1.17)
James P. Allen
Egyptian cosmogonies were concerned primarily with explaining the origin of the world and its elements. The creation of human beings was considered part of this process, and as such was not given special attention in and of itself: if noted at all, it is usually explained by a simple “etymological” metaphor, which derives people (rmṯ) from the “tears” (rmyt) of the creator’s eye. By the same token, the establishment of social and moral norms is generally absent from the creation accounts, since these were considered part of the natural order governing the operation of the world as a whole. Spell 1130 of the Coffin Texts is perhaps the major exception to this tradition. Like all Egyptian cosmogonies, it equates the creation with the establishment of order and the attendant quelling of chaos; but unlike most, it describes this process in largely human terms — the relationship of people to nature and to one another. The spell is also unusual in its reference to the end of the world, which is conceived essentially as a return to chaos, a reversal of the process of creation itself.
Introduction (CT VII 461c–462c)
RECITATION BY INACCESSIBLE-OF-IDENTITIES, the Lord to the Limit, speaking before those who still the storm during the sailing of the entourage: Please proceed in calm, and I will repeat to you the four deeds2 that my own heart did for me inside the Coil a for the sake of stilling disorder.
The establishment of order (CT VII 462d–464f)
I have done four good deeds inside the portal of the Akhet.
I have made the four winds,
so that every person might breathe in his area.
That is one of the deeds.
I have made the great inundation,
so that the poor might have control like the rich. c
That is one of the deeds.
I have made every person like his fellow.
I did not decree that they do disorder:
it is their hearts that break what I said.
That is one of the deeds.
I have made their hearts not forget the West,
for the sake of making offerings to the nome gods.
That is one of the deeds.
The operation of order in the world (CT VII 464g-467d)
I made the gods evolve from my sweat,
while people are from the tears of my Eye.
I shine anew every day in this my rank of Lord to the Limit.
I made night for Weary-hearted,
while I am bound for sailing aright in my boat.
I am lord of the Flood in crossing the sky.
I do not have to show respect for any of my parts:
Annunciation and Magic are felling for me that evil-charactered one
that I might see the Akhet and come to sit at its head,
that I might separate the needy from the rich, e
and do likewise to the disorderly.
Life is for me, I am its lord:
the scepter will not be taken from my hand.
The end of creation (CT VII 467e–468b)
And when I have spent millions of years between myself and that Weary-hearted one, the son of Geb,
I will come to sit with him in one place,
and mounds will become towns, and towns mounds:
one enclosure will destroy the other.
REFERENCES
CT VII 461c–468b; ANET 7–8; Lichtheim 1973:131–33; Faulkner 1978:167–169; Hermsen 1991:227–234.
BOOK OF THE DEAD 175 (1.18)
“Rebellion, Death and Apocalypse”
Robert K. Ritner
Through a series of dialogues between divine speakers, this famous theological treatise details the corruption of the original creation with the introduction of death and concomitant anxiety regarding an afterlife, as well as apocalyptic pronouncements of the world’s ultimate dissolution and recreation. A final section relates an ontological myth describing the origin of ritual, deities and names. Thought to have been composed as early as the First Intermediate Period (Kees 1956:207), the six surviving manuscripts range in date from the 18th Dynasty to the Roman Period. In addition to the basic manuscript in Naville (1886, vol. 1, pls. cxcviii–cxcix), primary bibliography may be found in Hornung (1979:517–518), adding the published translations in Allen (1974:183–185), Barguet (1967:260–263), Faulkner (1985:175), Hornung (1979:365–371), and Wilson (ANET 9–10). No previous translation has included detailed critical analysis of the differing versions.
SPELL FOR NOT DYING AGAIN. WORDS SAID BY THE OSIRIS NN:
“O, Thoth, what is it that has happened through the children of Nut? They have made war. They have raised disturbance. When they committed evil, then they created rebellion. When they committed slaughter, then they created imprisonment. Indeed, they have converted what was great into what is small in all that I have done.
Hail (?), O great one Thoth” – so says Atum.
“You shall not see evil. You shall not suffer. Curtail their years, hasten their months, since they have betrayed secrets in all that you have done.”
“Mine is your palette, O Thoth. To you I have brought your ink pot. I am not among those who betray their secrets. No injury shall be done through me.”
WORDS SAID BY THE OSIRIS NN:
“O, Atum, what does it mean that I go to the desert, the Land of Silence, which has no water, has no air, and which is greatly deep, dark, and lacking?”6
“Live in it in contentment.”
“But there is no sexual pleasure in it.”
“It is in exchange for water and air and sexual pleasure that I have given spiritual blessedness, contentment in exchange for bread and beer” – so says Atum.
“It is too much for me, my lord, not to see your face.”
“Indeed, I shall not suffer that you lack.”
“But every god has taken his throne in the bark Millions (of Years).”
“Your throne belongs to your son Horus” – so says Atum. “He now will dispatch the elders.12 He now will rule the two banks. He will inherit the throne14 which is in the Island of Flames.”
“Then command that the god see his equal, for my face will see the face of my lord Atum.”16
“What is the span of my life” — so says Osiris.
“You shall be for millions of millions (of years), a lifetime of millions.20 Then I shall destroy all that I have made. This land will return into the Abyss, into the flood as in its former state. It is I who shall remain together with Osiris, having made my transformations into other snakes which mankind will not know, nor gods see. How beautiful is that which I have done for Osiris, exalted more than all the gods! I have given to him rulership22 in the desert, the Land of Silence, while his son Horus is the heir upon his throne which is in the Island of Flames. I have made his seat24 in the bark of Millions (of Years). I have caused that he dispatch the elders. I have caused that his monuments be founded, while love of him is on earth, while the falcon is distant,26 secure in his palace through the desire of founding his monuments. I have sent28 the soul of Seth distinct from all30 the gods. I have caused that his soul be under guard in the bark through the desire that he not frighten the god’s limbs.”
“O, my father Osiris, may you do for me what your father Re did for you. May I endure upon earth, may I found my throne, may my heir be healthy, may my tomb stand firm. They are my servants upon earth.33 May my enemies be as split sycamore figs, with Selqet over their bonds.
I am your son, O my father Re. May you make for me this life, prosperity, and health, while the falcon is distant,36 secure in his palace. May one go forth to this lifetime of one who seeks for reverence among these revered ones.”
The sound of praise is in Heracleopolis, joy in Naref, since Osiris has appeared as Re, having inherited his throne, ruling the two banks completely. The Ennead is satisfied concerning it; Seth is as a great split sycamore fig.
“0 my lord Atum,” so says Osiris.40 “May Seth be afraid of me when he sees that my form is as your form. May all people come to me — all patricians, all commoners, all sunfolk, gods, blessed spirits and the dead — in bowing when they see me, since you have placed fear of me and created respect for me.”
Then Re [acted] in accordance with all that he said. Then Seth came with his head downcast, touching the earth, since he had seen what Re had had done for Osiris. Blood then descended from his nose. Then Re42 hacked the blood that came forth from his nose. That is how there came to be the ritual hacking of the earth in Heracleopolis.
Then Osiris became ill in his head, through the heat of the Atef-crown that was on his head — on the first day when he put it on his head — through the desire that the gods might fear him. Then Re returned in peace to Heracleopolis45 to see his son Osiris, and he found him sitting in his house, his head fallen into swelling47 through the heat of the Atef-crown that was on his head. Then Re emptied out these swellings, extracting the blood, pus and corruption, so that they ended up in a swamp. Then Re said to Osiris: “From the blood and pus descended from your head you have made a swamp.” Thus came to be the great49 swamp that is in Heracleopolis.
Then Osiris said to Re: “How healthy and how relieved is my face! How uplifted I am regarding what you commanded for my face regarding the ornament.”
Then Re [said] to Osiris: “Let your face be secure, your front be uplifted! How great is fear of you, how vast your respect! Behold the beautiful name come forth to you from my mouth! Behold your name remains for millions of many millions (of years)”! That is how there came to be the name of Harsaphes, foremost of his place in Heracleopolis, while the great52 Atef-crown is on his head, with millions and hundreds of thousands of bread, beer, bulls for slaughter, birds for wringing, everything good and pure, greater than the fluid of his spirit, while his spirit is before him, the spirit of sexual pleasure elevating to him all offerings.55
Then Re said to him: “How beautiful is this that has been done for you. Never has the like been done.”57
Then Osiris said: “It is by the authoritative power of my speech that I did it. How good is the king with authoritative utterance in his mouth!”
Then Re said to Osiris: “Behold, goodness has come forth to you from my mouth. By means of it your primal state has come into being. Then your name is fixed through it for millions of millions (of years).” That is how the name of Heracleopolis came to be.59
“How great is fear of you, how vast your respect! So long as there exists Horus, son of Osiris, born of Isis the goddess, may I exist as he exists, may I endure as he endures, my years like his years, his years like my years on earth for millions of many millions (of years).”
Words to be said over an image of NN made of lapis lazuli, given to a man at his neck. It is a great protection on earth and enhances a man in the necropolis. It gives love of him to people, gods, blessed spirits and the dead. It protects him from the assault of a god and protects a man from everything evil. Truly effective, (proved) millions of times.
REFERENCES
Naville 1886 1:cxcviii–cxcix; Allen 1974:183–185; Barguet 1967:260–263; Faulkner 1985:175; Hornung 1979:365–371, 517–518; Kees 1930; 1956; ANET 9–10.
COFFIN TEXT 157 (1.19)
“Cultic Abominaton of the Pig”
Robert K. Ritner
This spell for “Knowing the Souls of Pe” (with its descendant Book of the Dead 112) provides a theological explanation for the Egyptian pork taboo, a prohibition never uniformly accepted (Darby et al. 1977:171–209; Miller 1990). The conclusion to the companion Coffin Text spell 158 is instructive: “Not to be said while eating pork.” No less interesting is the medical aspect of spell 157, since it details the first recorded opthalmological exam, perhaps including reference to a type of eye chart with “strokes.” The form of the myth is aetiological, explaining the origin of animals and customs.
BEING ORDAINED FOR FOODSTUFFS IN THE NECROPOLIS, PRAISE AND LOVE ON EARTH, AND EXISTENCE AMONG THE FOLLOWING OF HORUS AND HIS ATTENDANTS. A MYSTERY KNOWN IN THE ESTATE (IN PE). KNOWING THE SOULS OF PE.
O female souls of night, female marsh dwellers, Mendesian women, women of the Mendesian nome, dwellers in the Mansion of Iapu, shadowy ones ignorant of praise, brewers of Nubian beer, do you know the reason for which Pe was given to Horus? You do not know it, but I know it. It was Re who gave it in recompense for the mutilation in his eye. I know it. It was the case that Re said to Horus: “Let me see your eye since this has happened to it.” He then saw it and he said: “Look, pray, at that stroke while your hand covers the healthy eye which is there.” Then Horus looked at that stroke. Horus then said: “Behold, I see it completely white.” THAT IS HOW THE ORYX (“See–white”) CAME TO BE.
Re then said: “Look at that black pig.” Then Horus looked at that black pig. Then Horus cried out over the condition of his throbbing (“raging”) eye, saying: “Behold, my eye feels as at that first wound which Seth inflicted against my eye.”
Then Horus lost consciousness (“swallowed his heart”) before him. Re then said: “Place him on his bed until he is well.” It was the case that Seth made transformations against him as that black pig. Then he cast a wound into his eye. Re then said: “Abominate the pig for Horus.” “Would that he be well,” SO SAID THE GODS. THAT IS HOW THE ABOMINATION OF THE PIG CAME TO BE FOR HORUS BY THE GODS AND THEIR FOLLOWERS.
NOW when Horus was in his childhood, his sacrificial animal came to be a pig though his eye had not yet suffered. As for Imsety, Hapy, Dua-mutef, and Qebehsenuef, their father is Horus the elder and their mother is Isis. It was the case that Horus said to Re: “Give to me two in Pe and two in Hierakonpolis from this corpus of brethren to be with me in eternal assignment so that the earth might flourish and disturbance be extinguished in this my name of Horus upon his papyrus column.”
I KNOW THE SOULS OF PE: ONE IS HORUS; ONE IS IMSETY; ONE IS HAPY.
REFERENCES
Textual edition: de Buck 1938:326–348. Further discussion and translations: ANET 9–10; Faulkner 1973:135–136.
BOOK OF THE DEAD 112 (1.20)
(Variant of CT 157)
Robert K. Ritner
The primary manuscript (18th Dynasty) appears in Naville (1886: pl. cxxiv), with translations in Barguet (1967:148–150), Allen (1974:91) and Faulkner (1985:108–109). A vignette depicts the seated gods Horus, Imsety and Hapy.
SPELL FOR KNOWING THE SOULS OF PE.
It is NN who shall say: “O marsh dwellers, those among the marsh dwellers, Mendesian women, those of the Mendesian nome, lady trappers who are in Pe, shadowy ones who know no return, brewers of beer who knead bread, do you know the reason for which Pe was given to Horus? I know it, but you do not know it. It was Re who gave it in recompense for the mutilation in his eye by this which Re said to Horus: ‘Let me see this which happened in your eye.’ When Re investigated, then he saw. Re then said to Horus: ‘Look, pray, at that black boar.’ Then he looked. And then his throbbing (“raging”) eye suffered greatly. Horus then said to Re: ‘Behold, my eye feels as at that wound which Seth inflicted against my eye.’ The he lost consciousness (“swallowed his heart”). Re then said to the gods: ‘Place him on his bed. Let him recover.’ It was the case that Seth had made his transformations into a black boar. Then that one cast a wound into his eye. Re then said to the gods:
‘Let the pig be abominated for Horus. Let him recover.’ That is how the pig came to be the abomination of Horus by the Ennead that is in his following.
When Horus was in his youth, his sacrificial animal came to be as his cattle and his pigs, though his followers abominate (them). Imsety, Hapy, Duamutef, and Qebehsenuef, (he is) their father, and Isis is their mother. Horus then said to Re: ‘May you give to me two brothers in Pe, and the remaining two in Hierakonpolis from this corpus together with me, to be in eternal assignment so that the earth might flourish, and disturbance be extinguished. That is how his name came to be as ‘Horus upon his Papyrus Column.’ I know the souls of Pe. One is Horus. One is Imsety. One is Hapy.
Lift up your heads, O gods who are in the underworld. It is so that you might see him having become as a great god that I have come before you.”
REFERENCES
Naville 1886: pl. cxxiv; Barguet 1967:148–150; Allen 1974:91; Faulkner 1985:108–109.
2. OTHER MYTHS
THE REPULSING OF THE DRAGON (1.21)
(Coffin Text 160)
Robert K. Ritner
During the course of each day’s journey, the sun god confronted a serpent adversary whom he vanquished with the assistance of the militant god Seth and the force of divine magic. Within the following Coffin Text spell, this battle with the “dragon” is located at Bakhu, the mountainous western support of heaven where the sun sets. Elsewhere the serpent is styled Apep (Apopis), who threatens to devour the solar boat in the seventh and twelfth hours of night and thereby destroy the created order, returning the world to a state of chaos. Various temple, and even private, rituals were devised to ensure the victory of Re and the consequent maintenance of world stability (Ritner 1993:210–212). By the recitation of a victorious “mythic precedent” on the divine plane, this Coffin Text spell was designed to accomplish a variety of positive goals for the living and the dead, including protection against deadly serpents.a
(Spell for) ENDURING ON EARTH, NOT EATING EXCREMENT IN THE NECROPOLIS, NOT PERISHING IN THE NECROPOLIS BY A LIVING OR DEAD BA-SPIRIT, NOT DYING BY MEANS OF A SERPENT,2 ENTERING AND EXITING THROUGH THE EASTERN PORTALS OF HEAVEN, BEING HEALTHY ON EARTH BY A LIVING OR DEAD BA-SPIRIT, HAVING POWER OVER OFFERINGS THAT AN HEIR MAKES FOR HIS FATHERS IN THE NECROPOLIS, KNOWING THE SPIRITS OF THE WEST.
I know that mountain of Bakhu upon which the sky leans. Of crystal (?) it is, 300 rods in its length, 120 rods in its width. On the east of this mountain is Sobek, Lord of Bakhu. Of carnelian is his temple. On the east of that mountain is a serpent, 30 cubits in his length, with three cubits of his forefront being of flint. I know the name of that serpent who is on the mountain. His name is “He overthrows.” Now at the time of evening he turns his eye over against Re, and there occurs a halting among the (solar) crew, a great astonishment (?) within the voyage, so that Seth bends himself against him.5 What he says as magic:
Let me stand against you so that the voyage be set right. O you whom I have seen from afar, close your eye since I have bound you! I am the male! Cover your head so that you may be well and I may be well!7 I am “Great of Magic.” I have used (it) against you. What is it? It is effectiveness.9
O you who goes on his belly, your strength belongs to your mountain. But watch me as I go off with your strength in my hand! I am one who lifts up strength. I have come just so that I might plunder the (serpent-formed) earth gods.
As for Re, may he who is in his evening (i.e. Re) be satisfied with me when we have circled the sky, while you (the serpent) are in your fetters. It is what has been commanded against you in the divine presence. Thus does Re set in life.
I KNOW THE SOULS OF THE WEST. ONE IS RE. ONE IS SOBEK, LORD OF BAKHU. ONE IS HATHOR, LADY OF THE EVENING.
REFERENCES
Primary textual edition: de Buck 1938:373–388. Further discussion and translations: ANET 11–12; Faulkner 1973:138–139.
THE LEGEND OF ISIS AND THE NAME OF RE (1.22)
(P. Turin 1993)
Robert K. Ritner
Few texts illustrate so clearly the ritual significance of the personal name. Felt to be an intrinsic element and source of power, the name did not simply identify but defined an individual. a For hostile purposes, the destruction of a name could effect the death or misfortune of its owner, and this belief underlies both the prominent role of naming in execration texts (see text 1.32 below) and the well attested expunging of royal names in dynastic feuds. Divinities were often said to have secret names guarded from devotees and other deities alike. The inherent power of such divine names is stated directly in the late Papyrus BM 10188, in which Re–Atum declares: “Magic is my name.”2 In similar fashion, bodily “relics” are repositories of personal energy and equally subject to manipulation. In this spell, it is the spittle of the creator that serves to animate lifeless clay, in conformity with traditional Egyptian accounts of the creation.
SPELL of the divine god, who came into being by himself, who made heaven, earth, water, the breath of life, fire, gods, men, flocks, herds, reptiles, birds, and fish, the kingship of gods and men altogether, with limits beyond numerous years, […] and with numerous names. One did not know that (name); one did not know this (name).
Now, Isis was a wise woman. Her heart was more devious than millions among men; she was more selective than millions among the gods; she was more exacting than millions among the blessed dead. There was nothing that she did not know in heaven or earth, like Re, who made the substance of the earth. The goddess planned in her heart to learn the name of the noble god.
Now, Re entered every day in front of the crew (of the solar bark), being established on the throne of the two horizons. A divine old age had weakened his mouth so that he cast his spittle to the earth. He spat out, it lying fallen upon the ground. Isis kneaded it for herself with her hand, together with the earth that was on it. She formed it into a noble serpent; she made (it) in the form of a sharp point. It could not move, though it lived before her. She left it at the crossroads by which the great god passed in accordance with his heart’s desire through his Two Lands. The noble god appeared outside, with the gods from the palace in his following, so that he might stroll just like every day. The noble serpent bit him, with a living fire coming forth from his own self.5 It raged (?) among the pines. The divine god worked his mouth; the voice of his majesty reached up to heaven. His Ennead said: “What is it? What is it?” His gods said: “What? What?” He could not find his speech to answer concerning it. His lips were quivering, and all his limbs were trembling. The poison seized upon his flesh as the inundation seizes what is behind it. The great god regained his composure and cried out to his followers: “Come to me, you who have come to be from my body, gods who came forth from me, so that I might let you know its development. Something painful has stabbed me. My heart does not know it. My eyes did not see it. My hand did not make it. I cannot recognize it among any of the things that I have made. I have not tasted a suffering like it. There is nothing more painful than it.”
“I am a noble, son of a noble, the fluid of a god come forth from a god. I am a great one, son of a great one. My father thought out my name. I am one who has numerous names and numerous forms. My form exists as every god. I am called Atum and Horus of Praise. My father and mother told me my name. I have hidden it in my body from my children so as to prevent the power of a male or female magician from coming into existence against me. I went outside to see what I had made, to stroll in the Two Lands that I created, and something stung me. I do not know it. It is not really fire; it is not really water, though my heart is on fire and my body is trembling, all my members giving birth to a chill.”
“Let the children of the gods be brought to me, whose words are magically effective, who know their spells, whose wisdom reaches up to heaven!”
The children of the god then came, each man of them bearing his boasting. Isis came bearing her effective magic, her speech being the breath of life, her utterance dispelling suffering, her words revivifying one whose throat is constricted. She said: “What is it, what is it, my divine father? What, a serpent has inflicted weakness upon you? One of your children has raised his head against you? Then I shall overthrow it by efficacious magic, causing him to retreat at the sight of your rays.”
The holy god opened his mouth: “It was the case that I was going on the road, strolling in the Two Lands and the deserts. My heart desired to see what I had created. I was bitten by a serpent without seeing it. It is not really fire; it is not really water, though I am colder than water and hotter than fire, my entire body with sweat. I am trembling, my eye unstable; I cannot see. Heaven beats down rain upon my face in the time of summer!”
THEN SAID Isis to Re: “Say to me your name, my divine father, for a man lives when one recites in his name.”
(Re said:) “I am c the one who made heaven and earth, who knit together the mountains, who created that which exists upon it. I am the one who made the water, so that the Great Swimming One came into being. I made the bull for the cow,12 so that sexual pleasure came into being. I am the one who made heaven and the mysteries of the horizons; I placed the ba–spirits of the gods inside it. I am the one who opens his two eyes so that brightness comes into being, who closes his two eyes so that darkness comes into being, according to whose command the inundation surges, whose name the gods do not know. I am the one who made the hours so that the days came into being. I am the one who divided the year, who created the river. I am the one who made living fire, in order to create the craft of the palace. I am Khepri in the morning, Re at noon, and Atum who is in the evening.”
The poison was not repelled in its course; the great god was not comforted.
Then Isis said to Re: “Your name is not really among those that you have said to me. Say it to me so that the poison might go out, for a man lives when one pronounces his name.”
The poison burned with a burning; it was more powerful than flame or fire.
Then the majesty of Re said: “May you give to me your two ears, my daughter Isis, so that my name might go forth from my body to your body. The most divine one among the gods had hidden it, so that my status might be broadened within the Bark of Millions. If there occurs a similar occasion when a heart goes out to you, say it to your son Horus after you have bound him by a divine oath, placing god in his eyes.”16 The great god announced his name to Isis, the Great One of Magic.
“Flow out, scorpions! Come forth from Re, Eye of Horus! Come forth from the god, flame of the mouth. I am the one who made you; I am the one who sent you. Come out upon the ground, powerful poison! Behold, the great god has announced his name. Re lives; the poison is dead. NN, born of NN, lives; the poison is dead, through the speech of Isis the Great, the Mistress of the Gods, who knows Re by his own name.”
Words to be recited over an image of Atum and of Horus-of-Praise, a figure of Isis, and an image of Horus, DRAWN (ON) THE HAND OF THE SUFFERER AND LICKED OFF BY THE MAN; DO LIKEWISE ON A STRIP OF FINE LINEN, PLACED ON THE SUFFERER AT HIS THROAT. THE PLANT IS SCORPION PLANT. GROUND UP WITH BEER OR WINE, IT IS DRUNK BY THE MAN WHO HAS A SCORPION STING. IT IS WHAT KILLS THE POISON — TRULY EFFECTIVE, (PROVED) MILLIONS OF TIMES.
REFERENCES
Primary manuscript: P. Turin 1993 (19th Dyn.): Pleyte and Rossi 1869–76 pls. cxxxi:12 – cxxxiii:14; and lxxvii + xxi:1–5); excerpted in Möller 1927:29–32). Other contemporary exemplars: HO 2 and HO 3, 2; O. Deir el–Medineh 1263; and Papyrus Chester Beatty 11. Bibliography and translations: ANET 12–14; Borghouts 1978:51–55; Ritner 1993:76, n. 337. For methodological commentary, see Ritner (ibid., 76, 83, 95–96, and 164).
THE LEGEND OF ASTARTE AND THE TRIBUTE OF THE SEA (1.23)
P. Amherst (Pierpont Morgan) XIX–XXI
Robert K. Ritner
The tattered remains of a once magnificent manuscript, the “Astarte Papyrus” nevertheless provides tantalizing evidence of Egyptian traditions regarding the Asiatic goddess who had been adopted into cult and mythology by the beginning of the New Kingdom. While this legend has been shown to have an indigenous Egyptian setting, it is yet parallel to, and likely inspired by, the Ugaritic story of the Fight between Baal and the sea god Yam (text 1.86), whose Semitic name is also used for the threatening deity in the Egyptian tale. Helck, in contrast, has suggested that the tale is an adaptation derived from the Hurrian “Song of Ullikummi.” In the Egyptian legend, the Sea seems to threaten to overwhelm heaven, earth and mountains unless provided with tribute. When Astarte is sent to deliver the tribute, the Sea demands further that she be given to him in marriage, perhaps with a dowry including the seal of the earth god and the beads of the sky goddess. From other sources, it appears that the Sea is ultimately vanquished in combat by Seth (the Egyptian counterpart of Baal), mentioned in the fragmentary concluding lines.
(Col. 1) […] … his two bulls. “Let me praise […] … Let me praise the [earth (?) …] … Let me praise the sky [in its (?)] place […] the earth.” […] Ptah. Now after […] the earth. The earth rested […] “[…] I strip off her.” […] Then they bent like … […] Then [each (?)] man embraced [his fellow (?). Now] after [seven (?)] days, the sky did […] descending upon […] the Sea. The [… the] earth gave birtha to […] the four banks of the [Sea (?)] […] in its midst like the suspension […] his throne of Ruler. He […] carry for him the tribute. […] in the council. Then Renenutet carried […] as Ruler […] sky. Now, behold, one brought to him the tribute […] or his […] he will seize us as plunder […] our own to […] Renenutet his tribute in silver and gold, lapis lazuli [and turquoise (?) …] the boxes. Then they said to the Ennead: “[…] the tribute of the Sea, so that he might hear for us [all] the matters of the earth (?)], protected from his hand. Will he […]”
(Col. 2) […] Now they were fearful of […] the [tribute] of the Sea. Give […] the tribute of the Sea. […] evil. Renenutet took a […] Astarte. Then the […] said: “[…] birds hear what I might say. May you4 not depart […] another.” Hurry, go to Astarte […] her house. And you should cry out below [the window of the room in which (?)] she sleeps. And should say to her: “If you are [awake, …] If you are asleep, may I wake you. [… the] Sea as Ruler over the [earth and the mountains and (?)] the sky. Please, may you come before them at this [moment.” (?) …] Asiatics. Then Astarte […] the daughter of Ptah.
Now […] of the Sea, the […] “[…] you go yourself bearing the tribute of [the Sea” …] Then Astarte wept […] its Ruler was silent. […] “Lift up your7 face. […] Lift up your face. And you should […] away.” Then he lifted up [his face …] the […] singing and laughing at him. [… Then the Sea] saw Astarte while she was sitting on the edge of the Sea. Then he said to her: “Where have you come from, O daughter of Ptah, O angry and raging goddess? Have you worn out your sandals that are on your feet; have you frayed your clothes that are on you, by the going and coming that you have done from the sky and the earth?” Then [Astarte] said to him […]
(Col. 3) The Sea instructs Astarte to carry a message to the Ennead, probably demanding the goddess in marriage as security against his further depredations.
[… say to Ptah before (?)] the Ennead. “If they give to me Your [daughter (?) …] them. What would I do against them for my part?” Astarte heard what the Sea said to her. She lifted herself up to go to the Ennead to the place where they were gathered. The greater ones saw her; they stood up before her. The lesser ones saw her; they lay down on their bellies. She was given her throne and she sat down. She was presented with the (Col. 4) [tribute of the Sea (?) …] [the ] earth […] the beads. […] Then the beads […] the messenger of Ptah going to say these words to Ptah and to Renenutet. Then Renenutet took off the beads that were on her neck. Behold, she placed [them] on the balance […]
(Col. 5) […] Astarte. “O my […] It means an [argument (?)] with the Ennead. Therefore he will send and he will demand […] the seal of Geb […] the balance in it.” Then (Col. 6) […] (Col. 7) […] my basket of […] (Cols. 8–9) […] (Col. 10) [… tribute (?)] of the Sea [… pass (?)] by the gates […] the gates, go out (Col. 11) […] If they come again […] (Cols. 12–13) […] (Col. 14) [… the] Sea. And he shall […] to cover the earth and the mountains and (Col. 15) [the sky. (?)] […] to fight with him to the effect that […] he sat down calmly. He will not come to fight with us. Then Seth sat down. […]
(Verso) […] “Behold, I am with your10 […]” The Sea left […] the seven […] together with the sky and […]
REFERENCES
Text: Gardiner 1932a:74–85; 1932b:76–81. Studies: ANET 17–18; Stadelmann 1975; Helck 1983; van Dijk 1986:31–32; Ritner 1989:112–113.
THE DESTRUCTION OF MANKIND (1.24)
Miriam Lichtheim
This mythological tale forms the first part of a longer text known as “The Book of the Cow of Heaven,” which is inscribed in five royal tombs of the New Kingdom (the tombs of Tutankhamun, Seti I, Ramses II, Ramses III, and Ramses VI). The first part relates how the sun-god Re set out to destroy the human race because mankind was plotting rebellion against him. But after an initial slaughter, carried out by the “Eye of Re,” the sun–god relented and devised a ruse to stop the goddess from further killing. The interest of the tale lies, of course, in the theme of human wickedness arousing the divine wrath and resulting in a partial destruction of mankind, a theme that received its classic treatment in the Mesopotamian and biblical stories of the Flood.
The second part of the text (not translated here) tells how the sun–god, weary of government, withdrew into the sky and charged the other great gods with the rule of heaven and earth.
Though recorded in the New Kingdom, the text is written in Middle Egyptian, and it probably originated in the Middle Kingdom. The tale thus stands apart from stories which are written in Late Egyptian, the vernacular of the New Kingdom.
(1) It happened [in the time of the majesty of] Re, the self–created, after he had become king of men and gods together: Mankind plotted against him, while his majesty had grown old, his bones being silver, his flesh gold, his hair true lapis lazuli. When his majesty perceived the plotting of mankind against him, his majesty said to his followers: “Summon to me my Eye,1 and Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, and the fathers and mothers who were with me when I was in Nun, and also the god Nun; and he shall bring his courtiers (5) with him. But bring them stealthily, lest mankind see, lest they lose heart. Come with them (the gods) to the Palace, that they may give their counsel. In the end I may return to Nun, to the place where I came into being.”
The gods were brought, the gods were lined up on his two sides, bowing to the ground before his majesty, that he might make his speech before the eldest father, the maker of mankind, the king of people. They said to his majesty: “Speak to us, that we may hear it.” Then Re said to Nun: “O eldest god in whom I came into being, and ancestor gods, look, mankind, which issued from my Eye,5 is plotting against me. Tell me what you would do about it, for I am searching. I would not slay them until I have heard what you might (10) say about it.”
Then spoke the majesty of Nun: “My son Re, god greater than his maker, more august than his creators, stay on your throne! Great is fear of you when your Eye is on those who scheme against you.” Said the majesty of Re: “Look, they are fleeing to the desert, their hearts fearful that I might speak to them.” They said to his majesty: “Let your Eye go and smite them for you, those schemers of evil! No Eye is more able to smite them for you. May it go down as Hathor!”
The goddess returned after slaying mankind in the desert, and the majesty of this god said: “Welcome in peace, Hathor, Eye who did what I came for!” Said the goddess: “As you live for me, I have overpowered mankind, and it was balm to my heart.” Said the majesty of Re: “I shall have power over them as king (15) by diminishing them.” Thus the Powerful One (Sakhmet) came into being.
The beer–mash of the night for her who would wade in their blood as far as Hnes. Re said: “Summon to me swift, nimble messengers that they may run like a body’s shadow!” The messengers were brought immediately, and the majesty of this god said: “Go to Yebu and bring me red ochre8 in great quantity!” The red ochre was brought to him, and the majesty of this god ordered the Side–Lock Wearer in On to grind the ochre, while maidservants crushed barley for beer. Then the red ochre was put into the beer-mash, and it became like human blood; and seven thousand jars of beer were made. Then the majesty of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Re came together with the gods to see the beer.
Now when the day dawned (20) on which the goddess would slay mankind in their time of traveling south, the majesty of Re said: “It is good;11 I shall save mankind by it!” And Re said: “Carry it to the place where she plans to slay mankind!” The majesty of King Re rose early before dawn, to have this sleeping draught poured out. Then the fields were flooded three palms high with the liquid by the might of the majesty of this god. When the goddess came in the morning she found them flooded, and her gaze was pleased by it.12 She drank and it pleased her heart. She returned drunk without having perceived mankind. The majesty of Re said to the goddess: “Welcome in peace, O gracious one!” Thus beautiful women came into being in the town of Imu.
REFERENCES
Maystre 1941; Erman 1927:47–49; ANET 10–11; Piankoff 1955:27–29; Brunner–Traut 1965:69–72; Lichtheim AEL 2:197–199.
3. HYMNS
THE GREAT CAIRO HYMN OF PRAISE TO AMUN-RE (1.25)
P. Cairo 58038 (P. Bulaq 17)
Robert K. Ritner
While the initial sections of this universalist hymn are carved on a statue of the Second Intermediate Period (12th-17th Dynasties; see Hassan 1928:157–193), the best preserved manuscript is a Theban papyrus of the early 18th Dynasty (Amenhotep II). The papyrus text is published in Mariette (1872: pls. xi–xiii) and excerpted in Möller (1927:33–34). Commentary, bibliography, and translations are found in Grébaut 1874; Wilson ANET; Assmann 1975b:199–207, 549–553; and Römer 1987. Later New Kingdom excerpts are well–attested on ostraca from Deir el–Medineh (see Römer 1987:406).
I. ADORATION OF Amon–Re,
The bull resident in Heliopolis, Chief of all the gods,
The good god, the beloved,
Who gives life to every warm being
And to every good herd.
Hail to you, Amon–Re, Lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands,
Foremost of Karnak,
Bull of his Mother, foremost of his fields,
Wide of stride, foremost of Upper Egypt,
Lord of the Medjay Nubians, Ruler of Punt,
Oldest One of heaven, Eldest of earth,
Lord of what exists, enduring in all things.
UNIQUE ONE, LIKE WHOM AMONG the gods?
Goodly bull of the Ennead,
Chief of all the gods,
Lord of Truth, Father of the gods,
Who made mankind, who created the flocks,
Lord of what exists, who created the tree of life,
Who made the herbage, who vivifies the herd,
Goodly Power, whom Ptah engendered,
Youth, beautiful of (2/1) love,
To whom the gods speak praise,
Who made what is below and what is above, illuminating the Two Lands,
Ferried across the sky in peace,
King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Re, triumphant, Chief of the Two Lands,
Great of strength, Lord of respect,
Chief who made the land in its entirety.
WHOSE PLANS ARE MORE EXALTED THAN those of any god,
At whose beauty the gods rejoice,
For whom jubilation is spoken in the great shrine of El–Kab,
With festal processions in the fire shrine at Pe,
Whose fragrance the gods love,
When He returns from Punt,
Great of perfume, when He descends (from) the Medjay,
Beautiful of face, returned from God’s land.
DOGGING whose feet are the gods,
As they recognize His Majesty as their Lord,
Lord of fear, rich in terror,
Great in wrathful manifestations, powerful in appearances,
Whose offerings flourish, who made foodstuffs,
Jubilation to you, who made the gods,
Who suspended heaven, who laid down the ground!
(3/1) CAESURA
II. Awake soundly, Min–Amon,
Lord of eternity, who made endlessness,
Lord of praise, foremost of the [Ennead],
Whose horns are firm, whose face is beautiful,
Lord of the uraeus, lofty of plumage,
With beautiful fillet, lofty of White Crown,
Before whom coil the two uraeus cobras,
Fragrant One who is in the palace,
(with) Double Crown, Headdress, Blue Crown,
Beautiful of face when He receives the Atef-Crown,
Whom Upper and Lower Egypt love,
Lord of the Double Crown when He receives the Ames–sceptre,
Lord of the Mekes–sceptre, bearer of the Flail.
GOODLY Ruler HAVING APPEARED WITH THE WHITE CROWN,
Lord of solar rays, who made brightness,
To whom the gods speak jubilation,
Who extends His arms to the one He loves,
While His enemies fall to the flame.
It is His Eye that overthrows the rebels,
Placing its spear into the one who sucks up the Abyss,
Forcing (4/1) the villain to disgorge what it has swallowed.
HAIL TO YOU, Re, Lord of the Two Truths,
Whose shrine is hidden, Lord of the gods,
Khepri in the midst of His bark,
Who issued command that the gods might be,
Atum, who made the common man,
Who distinguished their forms, who made their lives,
Who separated the races, one from another,
Who hears the prayer of the one who is in distress,
Graciously disposed when He is entreated.
WHO RESCUES THE FEARFUL FROM THE HAND OF THE BRAZEN,
Who judges the wretch and the ruined,
Lord of perception, with effective utterance on his mouth,
For love of whom the Inundation has come,
Lord of sweetness, rich in love,
Coming so that the common man might live,
Who gives movement to every eye,
Formed in the Abyss,
Whose grace created brightness,
At whose beauty the gods rejoice,
(5/1) Their hearts living when they see him.
CAESURA
III. Re, REVERED IN KARNAK,
Grand of appearances in the Mansion of the Benben,
Heliopolitan, Lord of the new moon festival,
For whom are performed the six–day and quarter month festivals,
Sovereign — life, prosperity, health! — Lord of all the gods,
Falcon (?) in the midst of the horizon,
Chief of patricians of the Land of Silence,
Whose name is hidden from His children
In this His name of “Amon.”
HAIL TO YOU WHO ARE IN PEACE,
Lord of joy, powerful in appearances,
Lord of the uraeus, lofty of plumage,
With beautiful fillet, lofty of White Crown,
You, whom the gods love to see,
The Double Crown fixed on Your brow,
Love of You pervading the Two Lands,
Your rays shining in the eyes.
The patricians are happy when You rise;
The flocks languish when You shine.
Love of You is in the southern heaven,
(6/1) Your sweetness in the northern heaven.
Your beauty captivates hearts,
Love of You wearying the limbs,
Your beautiful form relaxing the hands.
Thoughts go astray at the sight of you.
YOU ARE the Sole One, WHO MADE [ALL] THAT EXISTS,
One, alone, who made that which is,
From whose two eyes mankind came forth,
On whose mouth the gods came into being,
Who made the herbage [for] the herds,
The tree of life for the sunfolk,
Who made that on which the fish live [in] the river,
And the birds flying through heaven,
Who gave breath to the one in the egg,
Who vivifies the son of the slug,
Who made that on which the gnat lives,
The worm and the flea likewise,
Who made the sustenance of the mice in [their] holes,
Who vivifies the winged creatures in every tree.
HAIL TO YOU, WHO DID THIS ENTIRELY,
One, alone, with numerous arms,
Who spends the night (7/1) watchful, while everyone sleeps,
Who seeks what is useful for his flock,
Amon, enduring in all things,
Atum, Horachty,
Praise to you, as they all say.
Jubilation to you, because you have wearied yourself with us.
Let the earth be kissed for you, because you have created us.
HAIL TO YOU — by all flocks,
Jubilation to you — by all foreign lands,
To the heights of heaven, to the breadth of the earth,
To the depths of the ocean,
The gods bowing to Your Majesty,
Exalting the might of Him who created them,
Rejoicing at the approach of Him who begot them,
Saying to you: “Come in peace,
Father of the fathers of all the gods,
Who suspended heaven, who laid down the ground.
WHO MADE WHAT EXISTS, WHO CREATED THAT WHICH IS,
Sovereign, — life, prosperity, health! — Chief of the gods.
Let us adore your might (8/1) in as much as you have made us,
Let {us} act for you because you have borne us.
Let us give you jubilation because you have wearied yourself with us.”
HAIL TO YOU, WHO MADE ALL THAT EXISTS,
Lord of Truth, Father of the gods,
Who made mankind, who created the flocks,
Lord of Grain,
Who made the life of the desert flocks,
Amon, the bull, beautiful of face,
Beloved in Karnak,
Grand of appearances [in] the Mansion of the Benben,
Repeating investments in Heliopolis,
Who judges the two contestants in the great broad hall,
Chief of the Great Ennead.
SINGLY UNIQUE ONE, WITHOUT HIS SECOND,
Foremost of Karnak,
Heliopolitan, foremost of His Ennead,
Living on Truth every day,
Horizon–dweller, Horus of the East,
For whom the desert creates silver and gold,
Genuine lapis lazuli for love of him,
Balsam and various incenses among the Medjay,
(9/1) Fresh myrrh for your nostrils,
O Beautiful of face, returned {from} the Medjay,
Amon–Re, Lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands,
Foremost of Karnak,
Heliopolitan, foremost of His harem.
CAESURA
IV. Unique king, like whom among the gods?
With numerous names, the number unknown,
Who rises in the eastern horizon,
Who sets in the western horizon,
Who overthrows His enemies
In the course of every day,
Whose two eyes Thoth elevates,
Pacifying Him with his efficacious spells,
At whose beauty the gods rejoice,
He whom His solar apes exalt.
Lord of the Night bark and the Day bark,
They traversing for you the Abyss in peace,
YOUR CREW IN JOY,
When they see the rebel overthrown,
His body licked by the knife,
(10/1) The flame having eaten him,
His ba-spirit more destroyed than his corpse.
That VILLAIN, his movement is removed,
While the gods rejoice,
The crew of Re at peace,
Heliopolis rejoicing,
For the enemies of Atum are overthrown,
Karnak at peace, Heliopolis rejoicing.
The Lady of Life, her heart is glad,
For the enemy of her lord is overthrown,
The gods of Babylon in jubilation,
Those in their shrines kissing the ground,
WHEN THEY SEE THE ONE MIGHTY IN HIS STRENGTH,
Power of the gods,
True One, Lord of Karnak,
In this Your name of Maker of Truth,
Lord of sustenance, bull of offerings,
In this Your name of Amon, Bull of His
Mother,
Maker of all peoples,
Creator and Maker of all that exists,
In this Your name (11/1) of Atum–Khepri,
Great falcon, with festive breast,
Beautiful of face, with festive chest,
Pleasing of form, lofty of feather,
Before whom the uraeus cobras sway,
To whom the hearts of patricians draw near,
For whom the sunfolk turn about,
Who makes festive the Two Lands in His epiphanies.
Hail to You, Amon–Re, Lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands,
Whose city desires that he rise!
IT IS COMPLETED, satisfactorily, as found.
REFERENCES
Assmann 1975b:199–207, 549–553; Grébaut 1874; Hassan 1928:157–193; Mariette 1872: pls. xi–xiii; Möller 1927:33–34; Römer 1987:406; ANET 365.
THE GREAT HYMN TO OSIRIS (1.26)
(On the Stela of Amenmose — Louvre C 286)
Miriam Lichtheim
A round–topped limestone stela, 1.×.62 m, of fine workmanship dating from the 18th Dynasty. In the lunette there are two offering scenes showing, on the left, the official Amenmose and his wife Nefertari seated before an offering table and, on the right, a lady named Baket, whose relationship to Amenmose is not stated. Before Amenmose stands a son with his arms raised in the gesture of offering. Another son stands behind the couple, and more sons and daughters are seated below. A priest also performs offering rites before the lady Baket. Below the scenes is the hymn to Osiris in twenty–eight horizontal lines.
This hymn contains the fullest account of the Osiris myth extant in Egyptian, as distinct from Greek, sources. Allusions to the Osiris myth are very frequent in Egyptian texts, but they are very brief. It seems that the slaying of Osiris at the hands of Seth was too awesome an event to be committed to writing. Other parts of the story could be told more fully, especially the vindication of Osiris and of his son Horus, to whom the gods awarded the kingship of Egypt that had belonged to Osiris. The latter, though resurrected, no longer ruled the living but was king of the dead in the netherworld. The final part of the hymn praises the beneficent rule of Horus and, since each living Pharaoh represented Horus, the praise is directed to the reigning king as well.
(1) Adoration of Osiris by the overseer of the cattle of [Amun], [Amen]mose, and the lady Nefertari. He says:
Hail to you, Osiris,
Lord of eternity, king of gods,
Of many names, of holy forms,
Of secret rites in temples!
Noble of ka he presides in Djedu,
He is rich in sustenance in Sekhem,
Lord of acclaim in Andjty,
Foremost in offerings in On. a
Lord of remembrance in the Hall of Justice,
Secret ba of the lord of the cavern,
Holy in White–Wall,
Ba of Re, his very body.
Who reposes in Hnes,
Who is worshiped in the naret–tree,
That grew up to bear his ba.
Lord of the palace in Khmun,
Much revered in Shashotep,
Eternal lord who presides in Abydos,
Who dwells distant in the graveyard
Whose name endures in people’s mouth.
Oldest in the joined Two Lands,
Nourisher before the Nine Gods,
Potent spirit among spirits.
Nun has given him his waters,
Northwind journeys south to him,
Sky makes wind before his nose,
That his heart be satisfied.
Plants sprout by his wish,
Earth grows its food for him,
Sky and its stars obey him,
The great portals open for him.
Lord of acclaim in the southern sky,
Sanctified in the northern sky,
The imperishable stars are under his rule,
The unwearying stars are his abode.
One offers to him by Geb’s command,
The Nine Gods adore him,
Those in the Duat kiss the ground,
Those on high bow down.
The ancestors rejoice to see him,
Those yonder are in awe of him.
The joined Two Lands adore him,
When His Majesty approaches,
Mightiest noble among nobles,
Firm of rank, of lasting rule.
Good leader of the Nine Gods,
Gracious, lovely to behold,
Awe inspiring to all lands,
That his name be foremost.
All make offering to him,
The lord of remembrance in heaven and earth,
Rich in acclaim at the wag–feast,
Hailed in unison by the Two Lands.
The foremost of his brothers,
The eldest of the Nine Gods,
Who set Maat throughout the Two Shores,
Placed the son on his father’s seat.
Lauded by his father Geb,
Beloved of his mother Nut,
Mighty when he fells the rebel,
Strong–armed when he slays (10) his foe.
Who casts fear of him on his enemy,
Who vanquishes the evil–plotters,
Whose heart is firm when he crushes the rebels.
Geb’s heir (in) the kingship of the Two Lands,
Seeing his worth he gave (it) to him,
To lead the lands to good fortune.
He placed this land into his hand,
Its water, its wind,
Its plants, all its cattle.
All that flies, all that alights,
Its reptiles and its desert game,
Were given to the son of Nut,
And the Two Lands are content with it.
Appearing on his father’s throne,
Like Re when he rises in lightland,
He places light above the darkness,
He lights the shade with his plumes.
He floods the Two Lands like Aten at dawn,
His crown pierces the sky, mingles with the stars.
He is the leader of all the gods,
Effective in the word of command,
The great Ennead praises him,
The small Ennead loves him.
His sister was his guard,
She who drives off the foes,
Who stops the deeds of the disturber
By the power of her utterance.
The clever–tongued whose speech fails not,
Effective in the word of command,
Mighty Isis who protected her brother,
Who sought him without wearying.
Who roamed the land lamenting,
Not resting till she found him,
Who made a shade with her plumage,
Created breath with her wings.
Who jubilated, joined her brother,
Raised the weary one’s inertness,
Received the seed, bore the heir,
Raised the child in solitude,
His abode unknown.
Who brought him when his arm was strong
Into the broad hall of Geb.
The Ennead was jubilant:
“Welcome, Son of Osiris,
Horus, firm–hearted, justified,
Son of Isis, heir of Osiris!”
The Council of Maat assembled for him
The Ennead, the All–Lord himself,
The Lords of Maat, united in her,
Who eschew wrongdoing,
They were seated in the hall of Geb,
To give the office to its lord,
The kingship to its rightful owner.
Horus was found justified,
His father’s rank was given him,
He came out crowned by Geb’s command,
Received the rule of the two shores.
The crown placed firmly on his head,
He counts the land as his possession,
Sky, earth are under his command,
Mankind is entrusted to him,
Commoners, nobles, sunfolk.
Egypt and the far–off lands,
What Aten (20) encircles is under his care,
Northwind, river, flood,
Tree of life, all plants.
Nepri gives all his herbs,
Field’s Bounty brings satiety,
And gives it to all lands.
Everybody jubilates,
Hearts are glad, breasts rejoice,
Everyone exults,
All extol his goodness:
How pleasant is his love for us,
His kindness overwhelms the hearts,
Love of him is great in all.
They gave to Isis’ son his foe,
His attack collapsed,
The disturber suffered hurt,
His fate overtook the offender.
The son of Isis who championed his father,
Holy and splendid is his name,
Majesty has taken its seat,
Abundance is established by his laws.
Roads are open, ways are free,
How the two shores prosper!
Evil is fled, crime is gone,
The land has peace under its lord.
Maat is established for her lord,
One turns the back on falsehood.
May you be content, Wennofer!
Isis’ son has received the crown,
His father’s rank was assigned him
In the hall of Geb.
Re spoke, Thoth wrote,
The council assented,
Your father Geb decreed for you,
One did according to his word.
An offering which the king gives (to) Osiris Khentamentiu, lord of Abydos, that he may grant an offering of bread and beer, oxen and fowl, ointment and clothing and plants of all kinds, and the making of transformations: to be powerful as Hapy, to come forth as living ba, to see Aten at dawn, to come and go in Rostau, without one’s ba being barred from the necropolis.
May he be supplied among the favored ones before Wennofer, receiving the offerings that go up on the altar of the great god, breathing the sweet northwind, drinking from the river’s pools: for the ka of the overseer of the cattle of [Amun], [Amen]mose, justified, born of the lady Henut, justified, and of his beloved wife, [the lady Nefertari, justified].
REFERENCES
Moret 1931; Erman 1927:140–145; Lichtheim AEL 2:81–86.
TWO HYMNS TO THE SUN–GOD (1.27)
From a Stela of the Brothers Suti and Hor — BM 826
Miriam Lichtheim
In the course of the 18th Dynasty, the rise to prominence of Amun of Thebes resulted in his assimilation to the supreme god, the sun–god Re. Furthermore, the conceptual dominance of sun worship had turned the sun–god into the all–embracing creator–god who manifested himself in many forms and under many names. Thus he absorbed Amun and Horus, and he was Atum, Harakhti, and Khepri. And his visible form, the sun–disk (Aten) became yet another manifestation of the god himself. The hymns to the sun–god of the twin brothers Suti and Hor, who lived in the reign of Amenhotep III, address the god in these various forms, and they accord a prominent place to the Aten, the most recently evolved personification of the god. In the first hymn the sun–god is addressed as Amun, Harakhti, Re, and Khepri; in the second hymn he is Aten, Khepri, and Horus.
The hymns are inscribed on a rectangular stela in door form, of gray granite and measuring 1.×.88 m. The central portion of the surface is carved to resemble a round–topped stela. In the lunette are the standing figures of Anubis and Osiris who are adored by the brothers Suti and Hor and their wives. The figures of the worshiping couples have been erased. Below the figures are twenty–one horizontal lines of text. The first hymn ends in the middle of line 8. The second runs from the middle of line 8 to near the end of line 14. The remaining lines consist of personal statements and prayers of the two brothers.
First Hymn
(1) Adoration of Amun when he rises as Harakhti by the overseer of the works of Amun, Suti, (and) the overseer of the works of Amun, Hor. They say:
Hail to you, Re, perfect each day,
Who rises at dawn without failing,
Khepri who wearies himself with toil!
Your rays are on the face, yet unknown,
Fine gold does not match your splendor;
Self–made you fashioned your body,
Creator uncreated.
Sole one, unique one, who traverses eternity,
[Remote one], with millions under his care;
Your splendor is like heaven’s splendor,
Your color brighter than its hues.
When you cross the sky all faces see you,
When you set you are hidden from their (5) sight;
Daily you give yourself at dawn,
Safe is your sailing under your majesty.
In a brief day you race a course,
Hundred thousands, millions of miles;
A moment is each day to you,
It has passed when you go down.
You also complete the hours of night,
You order it without pause in your labor.
Through you do all eyes see,
They lack aim when your majesty sets.
When you stir to rise at dawn,
Your brightness opens the eyes of the herds;
When you set in the western mountain,
They sleep as in the state of death.
Second Hymn
Hail to you, Aten of daytime,
Creator of all, who makes them live!
Great falcon, brightly plumed,
Beetle who raised himself.
Self–creator, uncreated,
Eldest Horus within Nut,
Acclaimed (10) in his rising and setting.
Maker of the earth’s yield,
Khnum and Amun of mankind,
Who seized the Two Lands from great to small.
Beneficent mother of gods and men,
Craftsman with a patient heart,
Toiling long to make them countless.
Valiant shepherd who drives his flock,
Their refuge, made to sustain them.
Runner, racer, courser,
Khepri of distinguished birth,
Who raises his beauty in the body of Nut,
Who lights the Two Lands with his disk.
The Two Lands’ Oldest who made himself,
Who sees all that he made, he alone.
Who reaches the ends of the lands every day,
In the sight of those who tread on them.
Rising in heaven formed as Re,
He makes the seasons with the months,
Heat as he wishes, cold as he wishes.
He makes bodies slack, he gathers them up,
Every land rejoices at his rising,
Every day gives praise to him.
Prayers
The overseer of works, Suti; the overseer of works, (15) Hor. He says:
I was controller in your sanctuary,
Overseer of works in your very shrine,
Made for you by your beloved son,
The Lord of the Two Lands, Nebmare, given life.
My lord made me controller of your monuments,
Because he knew my vigilance.
I was a vigorous controller of your monuments,
One who did right (maat) as you wished.
For I knew you are content with right,
You advance him who does it on earth.
I did it and you advanced me,
You made me favored on earth in Ipet–sut,
One who was in your following when you appeared.
I was a true one who abhors falsehood,
Who does not trust the words of a liar.
But my brother, my likeness, his ways I trust,
He came from the womb with me the same day.
The overseer(s) of Amun’s works in Southern Ipet, Suti, Hor.
When I was in charge on the westside,
He was in charge on the eastside.
We controlled great monuments in Ipet–sut,
At the front of Thebes, the city of Amun.
May you give me old age in your city,
My eye <beholding> your beauty;
A burial in the west, the place of heart’s content,
As I join the favored ones who went in peace.
May you give me sweet breeze when I land,
And [garlands] on the day of the wag–feast.
REFERENCES
Text: Hiero. Texts, Part 8:22–25 and pls. xxi; Varille 1942; Urk. IV 1943–1947; Stewart 1957:3–5. Translations: Sainte Fare Garnot 1948; 1949; Helck 1961; Fecht 1967; ANET 367–368; Lichtheim AEL 2:86–89.
THE GREAT HYMN TO ATEN (1.28)
In the Tomb of Ay — West Wall, 13 Columns
Miriam Lichtheim
The texts in the tomb of the courtier Ay have yielded the most extensive statements of Aten worship. Here we have not only several short hymns and prayers but, above all, the long text which has come to be known as “The Great Hymn to the Aten.” The east wall of the tomb is inscribed with three hymns and prayers to the Aten and to the king, and the west wall contains the great hymn. The long text columns begin at the top of the wall. Below the text are the kneeling relief figures of Ay and his wife.
“The Great Hymn to the Aten” is an eloquent and beautiful statement of the doctrine of the one god. He alone has created the world and all it contains. He alone gives life to man and beast. He alone watches over his creations. He alone inhabits the sky. Heretofore the sun-god had appeared in three major forms: as Harakhti in the morning, as Khepri in midday, and as Atum in the evening. His daily journey across the sky had been done in the company of many gods. It had involved the ever-recurring combat against the primordial serpent Apopis. In traversing the night sky the god had been acclaimed by the multitudes of the dead who rest there; and each hour of the night had marked a specific stage in his journey. Thus the daily circuit of the sky was a drama with a large supporting cast. In the new doctrine of the Aten as sole god all these facets were eliminated. The Aten rises and sets in lonely majesty in an empty sky. Only the earth is peopled by his creatures, and only they adore his rising and setting.
(1) Adoration of Re-Harakhti-who-rejoices-in-lightland In-his-name-Shu-who-is-Aten, living forever; the great living Aten who is in jubilee, the lord of all that the Disk encircles, lord of sky, lord of earth, lord of Lower Egypt, who lives by Maat, the lord of the Two lands, Neferkheprure, Sole-one-of-Re; the Son of Re who lives by Maat, the Lord of Crowns, Akhenaten, great in his lifetime; (and) his beloved great Queen, the Lady of the Two Lands, Nefer-nefru-Aten Nefertiti, who lives in health and youth forever. The Vizier, the Fanbearer on the right of the King, —– [Ay]; he says:
Splendid you rise in heaven’s lightland,
O living Aten, creator of life!
When you have dawned in eastern lightland,
You fill every land with your beauty.
You are beauteous, great, radiant,
High over every land;
Your rays embrace the lands,
To the limit of all that you made,
Being Re, you reach their limits,
You bend them <for> the son whom you love;
Though you are far, your rays are on earth,
Though one sees you, your strides are unseen.
When you set in western lightland,
Earth is in darkness as if in death;
One sleeps in chambers, heads covered,
One eye does not see another.
Were they robbed of their goods,
That are under their heads,
People would not remark it.
Every lion comes from its den,
All the serpents bite;
Darkness hovers, earth is silent,
As their maker rests in lightland.
Earth brightens when you dawn in lightland,
When you shine as Aten of daytime;
As you dispel the dark,
As you cast your rays,
The Two Lands are in festivity.
Awake they stand on their feet,
You have roused them;
Bodies cleansed, (5) clothed,
Their arms adore your appearance.
The entire land sets out to work,
All beasts browse on their herbs;
Trees, herbs are sprouting,
Birds fly from their nests,
Their wings greeting your ka.
All flocks frisk on their feet,
All that fly up and alight,
They live when you dawn for them.
Ships fare north, fare south as well,
Roads lie open when you rise;
The fish in the river dart before you,
Your rays are the midst the sea.
Who makes seed grow in women,
Who creates people from sperm;
Who feeds the son in his mother’s womb,
Who soothes him to still his tears.
Nurse in the womb,
Giver of breath,
To nourish all that he made.
When he comes from the womb to breathe,
On the day of this birth,
You open wide his mouth,
You supply his needs.
When the chick in the egg speaks in the shell,
You give him breath within to sustain him;
When you have made him complete,
To break out from the egg,
He comes out from the egg,
To announce his completion,
Walking on his legs he comes from it.
How many are your deeds.
Though hidden from sight,
O sole God beside whom there is none!
You made the earth as you wished, you alone,
All peoples, herds, and flocks;
All upon the earth that walk on legs,
All on high that fly on wings,
The lands of Khor and Kush,
The land of Egypt.
You set every man in his place,
You supply their needs;
Everyone has his food,
His lifetime is counted.
Their tongues differ in speech,
Their characters likewise;
Their skins are distinct,
For you distinguished the peoples.
You made Hapy in the Duat,
You bring him when you will,
To nourish the people,
For you made them for yourself.
Lord of all who toils for them,
Lord of all lands who shines for them,
Aten of daytime, great in glory!
All distant lands, you make them live,
You made a heavenly Hapy descend from them;
(10) He makes waves on the mountains like the sea,
To drench their fields and their towns.
How excellent are your ways, O Lord of eternity!
A Hapy from heaven for foreign peoples,
And all lands’ creatures that walk on legs,
For Egypt the Hapy who comes from the Duat.
Your rays nurse all fields,
When you shine they live, they grow for you;
You made the seasons to foster all that you made,
Winter to cool them, heat that they taste you.
You made the far sky to shine therein,
To behold all that you made;
You alone, shining in your form of living Aten,
Risen, radiant, distant, near.
You made millions of forms from yourself alone,
Towns, villages, fields, the river’s course;
All eyes observe you upon them,
For you are the Aten of daytime on high.
… — …
You are in my heart,
There is no other who knows you,
Only your son, Neferkheprure, Sole-one-of-Re,
Whom you have taught your ways and your might.
<Those on> earth come from your hand as you made them,
When you have dawned they live,
When you set they die;
You yourself are lifetime, one lives by you.
All eyes are on <your> beauty until you set,
All labor ceases when you rest in the west;
When you rise you stir [everyone] for the King,
Every leg is on the move since you founded the earth.
You rouse them for your son who came from your body,
The King who lives by Maat, the Lord of the Two Lands,
Neferkheprure, Sole-one-of-Re,
The Son of Re who lives by Maat, the Lord of crowns,
Akhenaten, great in his lifetime;
(and) the great Queen whom he loves, the Lady of the Two Lands,
Nefer-nefru-Aten Nefertiti, living forever.
REFERENCES
Text: Davies 1903–08 6:29–31 and pls. xxvii and xli; Sandman 1938:93–96. Translation: ANET 369–371; Gardiner 1961:225–227; Simpson 1973:289–295; Lichtheim AEL 2:96–100; Studies: Auffret 1981:133–316.
4. PRAYERS
PRAYER TO RE-HARAKHTI (1.29)
Michael V. Fox
This is an individual supplication in a fairly stereotypic form, probably designed for use by different people in various situations. The worshipper asks for acceptance of his prayers without praying for anything in particular and confesses his sins and folly without reference to specific transgressions.
The worshipper seems to be a pilgrim to the temple at Heliopolis. The prayer is an expression of “personal piety,” a form of religion prominent in the Ramesside period (see, e.g., Fecht 1965). It emphasizes the individual’s humility and frailty and his dependence on god.
Some biblical psalms speak out of a similar context: a pilgrim expressing his confidence and joy when visiting the temple, where he imagines himself dwelling always in God’s presence. Compare Pss 23:6; 26:8; 27:4; 84, esp. vv 3, 5, 11; 42:3; 43:3–4; 122:1. Other psalms resemble this prayer in confessing frailty and sinfulness, e.g. Pss 25:7; 51; 40:13.
Prayer to Preʿ-Harakhty
(1) Come to me, Preʿ-Harakhty,
that you may perform (your) will.
You are the one who takes action,
there being none who takes action apart from you,
but (one can act) only if you are acting with him.
(6) Come to me, Atum, every day!
You are the noble god.
My heart has gone forth,
travelling southward to Heliopolis.
[…]
(11) My heart rejoices,
my bosom exults.
Hear my prayers —
my supplications by day,
(15) my hymns by night.
For my petitions are constant in my mouth,
They are heard throughout the day.
O sole one, unique!
(20) O Preʿ-Herakhty,
the likes of whom does not exist here.
Protector of millions,
who deliverers hundreds of thousands,
the helper of the one who cries to him,
(25) the lord of Heliopolis.
Visit not my many offenses upon me,
I am one ignorant of himself.
I am a mindless man,
who all day follows his mouth,
(30) like an ox after grass.
If my evenings (?) […]
I am one who to whom repose comes.
I spend the day walking about in the (temple) court,
(35) I spend the night […]
REFERENCES
Assmann 1975b; Barucq and Daumas 1980; Caminos 1954; Fecht 1965; Gardiner 1937; Hornung 1982.
5. HARPERS’ SONGS
THE SONG FROM THE TOMB OF KING INTEF (1.30)
Miriam Lichtheim
The song is preserved in two New Kingdom copies. First, on pages vi, 2–vii, 3, of the Ramesside Papyrus Harris 500 (= P. British Museum 10060); and, second, carved on a wall of the tomb of Paatenemheb from Saqqara, now in Leiden, which dates from the reign of Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten). The latter copy, which is incomplete, is written above the heads of a group of four musicians led by a blind harpist. The song’s introductory line states that it reproduces a song inscribed in the tomb of a King Intef — a name that was borne by a number of kings of the 11th and of the 17th Dynasties. Since the two New Kingdom copies reproduce a genuinely Middle Egyptian text, we need not doubt that an original text, carved in a royal tomb of the Middle Kingdom, existed.
The phrase “make holiday” (ir hrw nfr), which the singer of the Intef Song addresses to the audience, was a term employed in situations of daily life as well as in reference to death and the afterlife. Furthermore, it is known that funerary banquets were held in the cemeteries on feast days. It is thus quite possible that Harpers’ Songs were sung at such funerary banquets, and that they employed the “make holiday” theme in its multiple meanings. In the context of the funerary banquet the various meanings would blend into one.
The theme of sorrow over death properly belonged to the Laments on Death which were an integral part of the burial ceremony. What is noteworthy is that these laments juxtapose sorrow and joy in a manner similar to the Intef Song and subsequent Harpers’ Songs, and move rapidly back and forth between grief and joy:
I have wept, I have mourned!
O all people, remember getting drunk on wine,
With wreaths and perfume on your heads!
The dead too had joy: “How good is this which happens to him!”
Given the multiple meanings of the “make holiday” theme, it follows that it was not the use of this theme which made the Intef Song so startling, but rather its skepticism concerning the reality of the afterlife and the effectiveness of tomb–building. It was this skepticism which injected a strident note of discord into a class of songs that had been designed to praise and reassure. The incongruity is of the same order as that which one observes in the Dispute between a Man and His Ba. For there the ba, though itself the guarantor of immortality, is given the role of denigrating death and immortality, denying the worth of tombs, and counseling enjoyment of life. The incongruity was not lost on the Egyptians, as the subsequent development of Harpers’ Songs reveals. The Harpers’ Songs of the New Kingdom show two responses to the Intef Song: an outright rejection of its “impious” thoughts, and a toning down of its skepticism so as to remove the sting. Both solutions are found side by side in two Harpers’ Songs carved on the walls of the New Kingdom tomb of a priest Neferhotep.
The objection to the skeptic–hedonistic message is phrased thus:
I have heard those songs that are in the tombs of old,
And what they relate in extolling life on earth,
And in belittling the land of the dead.
Why is this done to the land of eternity,
The just and fair that holds no terror?
There follows the praise of eternal life.
The toning down of the skeptical approach took various forms, and resulted in Harpers’ Songs that were eclectic and lacked unity. But though toned down, the note of skepticism could be heard, sometimes faintly, sometimes clearly, in Harpers’ Songs and in other compositions, as a haunting suspicion that the struggle to win immortality was at best beset by uncertainties and at worst, futile.
(vi 2) Song which is in the tomb of King Intef, the justified, in front of the singer with the harp.
He is happy, this good prince!
❐Death is a kindly fate❒.
A generation passes,
Another stays,
Since the time of the ancestors.
The gods who were before rest in their tombs,
Blessed (vi 5) nobles too are buried in their tombs.
(Yet) those who built tombs,
Their places are gone,
What has become of them?
I have heard the words of Imhotep and Hardedef,
Whose sayings are recited whole.
What of their places?
Their walls have crumbled,
Their places are gone,
As though they had never been!
None comes from there,
To tell of their state,
To tell of their needs,
To calm our hearts,
Until we go where they have gone!
Hence rejoice in your heart!
Forgetfulness profits you,
Follow your heart as long as you live!
(vi 10) Put myrrh on your head,
Dress in fine linen,
Anoint yourself with oils fit for a god.
Heap up your joys,
Let your heart not sink!
Follow your heart and your happiness,
Do your things on earth as your heart commands!
When there comes to you that day of mourning,
The Weary-hearted hears not their mourning,
Wailing saves no man from the pit!
Refrain (vii 2): Make holiday,
Do not weary of it!
Lo, none is allowed to take his goods with him,
Lo, none who departs comes back again!
REFERENCES
Text: Budge 1910:23–24, pls. xlv–xlvi; Müller 1899:29–30, pls. xii–xvi; Holwerda–Boeser 1905–1932 4:pl. 6 (the tomb copy). Translation: Erman 1927:133–134; Breasted 1933:163–164; Lichtheim 1945:192–193; AEL 1:194–197; ANET 467–468; Daumas 1965:404.
THE SONG FROM THE TOMB OF NEFERHOTEP (1.31)
(Theban Tomb No. 50)
Miriam Lichtheim
When they first appeared in the Middle Kingdom, the texts known as Harper’s Songs were designed to praise death and the life after death. But in the famous Harper’s Song from the Tomb of King Intef, preserved in a papyrus copy, the praises of the afterlife were replaced by anxious doubts about its reality, and by the advice to make merry while alive and to shun the thought of death. Such a skeptic–hedonistic message may have originated in songs sung at secular feasts; but when transmitted as a funerary text inscribed in a tomb and addressed to the tomb–owner, the message became incongruous and discordant. The incongruity did not pass unnoticed. In the tomb of the priest Neferhotep there are three Harper’s Songs, each expressing a particular response. One song continued the skeptic–hedonistic theme but blended it with elements of traditional piety in an attempt to tone down and harmonize the contrary viewpoints. The second song is an outright rejection of skepticism and hedonism, coupled with a praise of the land of the dead. The third is a description of life after death in traditional ritualistic terms. Thus, the three songs in one and the same tomb reflect the Egyptian preoccupation with the nature of death and the varying and conflicting answers and attitudes which continued side by side.
The second and third songs, and the figures of the harpers who recite them, form part of a banquet scene on the left rear wall of the hall. The first song occurs in the context of an offering–table scene, in the passage leading from the hall to the inner shrine. The second song, the one that deliberately rejects the skeptic message, is translated below.
Says the singer–with–harp of the divine father of Amun, Neferhotep, justified:
All ye excellent nobles and gods of the graveyard,
Hearken to the praise–giving for the divine father,
The worship of the honored noble’s excellent ba,
Now that he is a god everliving, exalted in the West;
May they become a remembrance for posterity,
For everyone who comes to pass by.
I have heard those songs that are in the tombs of old,
What they tell in extolling life on earth,
In belittling the land of the dead.
Why is this done to the land of eternity,
The right and just that has no terrors?
Strife is abhorrent to it,
No one girds himself against his fellow;
This land that has no opponent,
All our kinsmen rest in it
Since the time of the first beginning.
Those to be born to millions of millions,
All of them will come to it;
No one may linger in the land of Egypt,
There is none who does not arrive in it.
As to the time of deeds on earth,
It is the occurrence of a dream;
One says: “Welcome safe and sound,”
To him who reaches the West.
REFERENCES
Text: Pierret 1874–1878 2:134–138; Gardiner 1913:165–170; Erman 1927:253–254; Hiero. Texts, 9:25–26, pls. xxi–xxiA. Translation: Lichtheim 1945:178–212 and pls. i–vii; AEL 2:115–116; ANET 33–34.
6. DIVINATION, INCANTATION, RITUAL
EXECRATION TEXTS (1.32)
Robert K. Ritner
From the Old Kingdom through the Roman era, priests performed official ritual cursings of the potential enemies of Egypt. The ceremonies included the breaking of red pots a and figurines inscribed with formal “Execration Texts” listing Nubians, Asiatics, Libyans, living and deceased Egyptians, as well as generally threatening forces. The texts themselves contain no explicit curses, but instead serve to identify the fate of the enemies with that of the destroyed pot or image. The texts were seemingly compiled by the state chancellory, since they were updated to reflect changes in rulers and territories. This translation follows the Middle Kingdom Berlin bowls (mid-12th Dynasty), supplemented by slightly earlier parallel texts from an intact deposit at the Nubian fortress of Mirgissa.
A. Nubia
The ruler of Kush, Auau, born of […], and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of Saï, Seteqtenkekh, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of Webasepet, Bakuayt, called Tchay, born of Ihaas, born to Wenkat, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of Webasepet, Iauny, born of Gem-hu[ (?) …], born to Ti[…], and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The Medjay, Wah–ib, born of […]tpuhia, born to Wenkat, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of Ausheq, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
Every Nubian of Kush, of Muger, of Saï, of Irs[…], of Nasem, of Rida, of Irsukhet, of Iamnas, of Ia[…], [of …]amu, of Tuksa, of Bahass, of Ma[…]ia, of Ibis, of Gas (?), of Ausheq, of Webasepet, of Iaat– …, of Iaat, of Tcheksis, of Megseruia, of Ruhpubawit (?),
Their strong men, their messengers, their confederates, their allies, who will rebel, who will plot, who will fight, who will say that they will fight, who will say that they will rebel, in this entire land.
B. Asia
The ruler of Iy–anq, b Erum, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of Iy–anq, Abi–yamimu, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of Iy–anq, Akirum, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of Shutu, c Ayyabum, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of Shutu, Kushar, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of Shutu, Zabulanu, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of ʾIymwʿrrw, Ḫâlu-barîḥ, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of Qhrmw, ‘Ammu– (y)atar, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of Qhrmw, Hmṯnw, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of Qhrmw, ʿAmmu-yakûn, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of Arḥâbu, ʿprwhq, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of Arḥâbu, Iymʿnʿwmw, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of ʾIsʾinw, Iykwḏdʾ’s son ʿmmwtʾi, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of ʾIsʾinw, ʿwḏwšnw, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of ʾIsʾinw, Mʾʾmwt, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of ʾInhʾiʾ, Malkî-ilum, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of ʾInhʾiʾ, ʾqḥm, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of ʾInhʾiʾ, Kamarum, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of ʾInhʾiʾ, Yapʿânu, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of ʾqhʾi, Iyqʾḏmw, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of ʾqhʾi, Šmšwʾirʾim, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of ‘Irqatum, Iʾwmqhtʾi, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of Ashkelon, d Ḫʾykm, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of Ashkelon, Ḫkṯnw (?), and all the stricken ones who are with him.
[The ruler of …, and all the stricken ones who are] with him.
The ruler of Mutî-ilu, Mnṯm, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of Jerusalem, e Yaqar-ʿAmmu, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of Jerusalem, Seti-ʿAnu, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of ʿḫmt, […]ksʾm, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
The ruler of Alhânu, Iymʿʾiʾw, and all the stricken ones who are with him.
All rulers of ʾIysʾipʾi, and all the stricken ones who are with them.
All the Asiatics of Byblos, of Ullaza, of Iyanq, of Shutu, of ʾIymwʿrrw, of Qhrmw, of Arḥâbu, of Yarmût, of ʾInhiʾ, of ʾqhʾi, of ʿIrqatum, of Yarmût (sic.), of Isʾinw, of Ashkelon, of Dmʾitʾiw, of Mutî-ilu, of Jerusalem, of Alhânu, of ʾIysʾipʾi,
Their strong men, their messengers, their confederates, their allies, the tribesmen in Asia, who will rebel, who will plot, who will fight, who will say that they will fight, who will say that they will rebel, in this entire land.
C. Libya
The chiefs in Libya, all Libyans and their rulers.
Their strong men, their messengers, their confederates, their allies, who will rebel, who will plot, who will fight, who will say that they will fight, who will say that they will rebel, in this entire land.
D. Egyptians
All people (i.e., “Egyptians”), all patricians, all commoners, all men, all eunuchs, all women, all nobles, who will rebel, who will plot, who will fight, who will say that they will fight, who will say that they will rebel, every rebel who will say that he will rebel, in this entire land.
The deceased Ameni, tutor of Sit–Bastet, who raised Sit–Hathor, daughter of Neferu.
The deceased Senwosret–seneb, the younger, called “Little One,” tutor of Sit–Ipi, daughter of Sit–Hathor, who raised Kamu, daughter of Sit–Hathor.
The deceased Sehetep–ib, tutor of Sit–Hathor, who raised Iwt-rehu–ankh.
The deceased Sobekhotep, born of Renes–ankh.
The deceased Seni–ankh, born of Iwrw, born to Hetepi.
The deceased Senwosret, called Witu, born to Ameny.
The deceased Amenemhat, born of Hepiu, born to Mutchau.
The deceased Ameny, born of Hetep, born to Senwosret.
E. Evil Things
Every evil word, every evil speech, every evil slander, every evil intent, every evil plot, every evil fight, every evil disturbance, every evil plan, every evil thing, every evil dream in every evil sleep.
REFERENCES
Texts: Sethe 1926; Koenig 1990. Translations and studies: ANET 328–329; Ritner 1993:136–190.
DREAM ORACLES (1.33)
(P. Chester Beatty III, P. BM 10683)
Robert K. Ritner
The Chester Beatty “Dream Book” is currently the oldest surviving manual of dream interpretation. Perhaps deriving from a 12th Dyn. original, the present manuscript dates from the 19th Dynasty and was the property of senior scribes at the royal workmen’s village of Deir el–Medineh. The book comprises eleven columns in tabular form, each preceded by the vertically–written heading: “If a man see himself in a dream.” The horizontal lines of the columns briefly detail the dream image, whether or not it is favorable, and the prognostication for the dreamer. The text is arranged in discrete units, with good dreams listed before bad ones (highlighted by red ink), and a concluding incantation to avert any evil results. The entire pattern was repeated twice, once for “followers” of Horus and again for those associated with Seth.2 The interpretations are often based on religious symbolism or paronomasia (“puns”), with many sexual situations and ironic reversals.
For the Egyptians, as for many cultures, dreams provided a point of contact between the divine and human worlds, so that dreams might be sought for inspiration or healing (incubation), or for communication with the dead; see Vernus 1986. Conversely, enemies might send evil dreams, and the execration texts (above, pp. 50–52) specifically combat “every evil dream in every evil sleep.” For other protections against night terrors, see Ritner 1990.
If a man see himself in a dream:
(2/7) Shooting at a target. [Good.] It means something good will happen to him.
(2/9) [Mentioning] his wife to a husband. Good. It means the retreat of evils attached to him.
(2/11) His penis having become large. Good. It means an increase of his property.
(2/12) [Taking (?)] a bow in his hand. Good. The giving to him of his (most) important office.
(2/13) Dying adversely. Good. It means living after the death of his father.
(2/14) Seeing the god who is above. Good. It means much food.
(2/20) His mouth filled with dirt. Good. Living off of his townsmen.
(2/21) Eating the flesh of a donkey. Good. It means his promotion.
(2/22) Eating the flesh of a crocodile. Good. [It means] living off the property of an official.
(2/24) Looking through a window. Good. The hearing of his cry by his god.
(2/25) Being given papyrus reeds. Good. It means hearing his cry.
(2/26) Seeing himself atop a house. Good. [It means] finding something.
(3/2) [Seeing] himself in mourning. Good. An increase of his property.
(3/3) His hair having become long. Good. It means something at which his face will light up (i.e., “be joyful”).
(3/4) Being given white bread. Good. It means something [at which his face] will light up.
(3/5) Drinking wine. Good. It means living in Truth.
(3/7) Copulating with his mother … Good. [It means] cleaving to him by his relatives.
(3/8) Copulating with his sister. Good. It means the transferral to him of property.
(3/17) Being given a head. Good. The opening of his mouth to speak.
(4/1) Killing a snake. Good. Killing a quarrel.
(4/2) Seeing his face as a panther. Good. Acting as chief.
(4/3) Seeing a large cat. Good. It means a large harvest will occur for him.
(4/4) Drinking wine. Good. The opening of his mouth to speak.
(4/5) Binding malefic people at night. Good. Taking away the speech of his enemies.
(4/6) Crossing in a ferry–boat. Good. It means coming forth from all quarrels.
(4/7) Seated on a sycamore. Good. Driving off all his ills.
(4/12) Destroying his clothes. Good. Releasing him from all ills.
(4/13) Seeing himself dead. Good. A long life before him.
(4/14) Binding his own two legs. Good. It means dwelling among his townsmen.
(4/15) Falling from a wall. Good. It means coming forth from all quarrels.
(5/5) [Drinking] his own urine. Good. It means eating the property of his son.
(5/19) Submerging in the Nile. Good. It means purification from all evil.
(6/1) Burying an old man. Good. It means prosperity.
(6/24) Seeing Asiatics. Good. The love of his father when he dies comes into his presence.
(7/4) Drinking warm beer. BAD. It means suppurating illness infects him.
(7/6) Chewing cucumber. BAD. It means quarreling with him occurs when he is met.
(7/8) Eating a filleted catfish. BAD. His seizure by a crocodile.
(7/11) Seeing his face in a mirror. BAD. It means another wife.
(7/12) God dispelling his tears. BAD. It means fighting.
(7/13) Seeing himself enchanting his side. BAD. Exacting property from him.
(7/17) Copulating with a woman. BAD. It means mourning.
(7/18) Bitten by a dog. BAD. His being touched by magic.
(7/19) Bitten by a snake. BAD. It means the occurrence of a quarrel against him.
(7/20) Measuring barley. BAD. It means the occurrence of a quarrel against him.
(7/21) Writing upon a papyrus roll. BAD. The reckoning of his transgressions by his god.
(7/22) Moving his house. BAD. [It means] his illness.
(7/23) Enchanted by another with his spell. BAD. It means mourning.
(7/24) Acting as helmsman in a boat. BAD. Regarding any judgment of him, he will not be victorious.
(7/25) His bed catching fire. BAD. It means the driving off of his wife.
(7/27) Being pricked by a thorn. BAD. It means telling lies.
(7/28) Seeing the trapping of birds. BAD. It means the seizure of his property.
(8/1) Seeing his penis hard. BAD. Victory to his enemies.
(8/5) Looking into a deep well. BAD. Putting him in prison.
(8/6) He catching on fire. BAD. His being slaughtered.
(8/12) His teeth falling out. BAD. It means the death of a man among his dependants.
(8/13) Seeing a dwarf. BAD. Taking away half of his life.
(8/25) Carrying off temple goods. BAD. Seizure of his property before him.
(9/3) An Asiatic cloak upon him. BAD. His removal from his office.
(9/9) Seeing a woman’s vulva. BAD. The ultimate in misery against him.
(9/10) Uncovering his own rear. BAD. He will be orphaned in the end.
(9/14) Placing his face to the ground. BAD. The seeking of something from him by the dead.
(9/15) Seeing a blazing fire. BAD. It means the seizure of his son or his brother.
(9/16) Copulating with a sow. BAD. Being deprived of his property.
(9/22) Copulating with his wife in the daylight. BAD. The seeing of his transgressions by his god.
(9/27) Guarding monkeys. BAD. A reversal is before him.
(9/28) Bringing mice from the field. BAD. A bad heart.
(10/9) Breaking a pot with his feet. BAD. It means fighting.
(10/10–10/19) WORDS SAID BY A MAN WHEN HE AWAKENS IN HIS PLACE.
“Come to me, come to me, my mother Isis! Behold, I am seeing what is far from me in my city.”
“Behold me, my son Horus, as one come forth bearing away what you have seen, so that your deafness be ended as your dream recedes, and fire go forth against him who frightens you. Behold, I have come so that I might see you, that I might drive off your ills, and that I might eradicate all terror.”
“Hail, good dream seen (by) night and by day. Drive off every evil terror that Seth, son of Nut, has made. As Re is victorious against his enemies, so I am victorious against my enemies.”
THIS SPELL IS SAID by a man when he awakes in his place. Pesen–loaves are placed in (his) presence with some fresh herbs moistened with beer and myrrh. The man’s face is to be wiped with them and all evil dreams that he has seen are driven off.
REFERENCES
Text: Gardiner 1935:9–23. Translations: ANET 495; Borghouts 1978:3–4; Ritner 1990.
DAILY RITUAL OF THE TEMPLE OF AMUN-RE AT KARNAK (1.34)
P. Berlin 3055 – A Selection
Robert K. Ritner
Dating from the 22nd Dynasty, this Theban ritual papyrus is one of the best sources for the standardized morning liturgy used for divine and royal cults throughout Egypt from the New Kingdom until Roman times. The Seti temple at Abydos depicts thirty–six chapters or “spells,” with nineteen represented at the Ptolemaic temple of Edfu and six at the contemporary temple of Dendera. In contrast, this Berlin papyrus adapted for Amon (together with P. Berlin 3014 + 3053 designed for his consort Mut), contains sixty–six recitations. No single source provides the complete ritual, but the constituent elements are easily reconstructed. The royal representative enters the chapel, censes and opens the naos to reveal the cult image. Thereafter follow spells of prostration, praise and offerings, after which the cult statue is removed, salved, clothed, adorned, and provided with unguent and eyepaint. In the concluding rites, fresh sand is strewn on the chapel floor, and the god is purified by water and natron and replaced in the naos. On exiting, the priest sweeps away his footprints, banishing impurities and demonic forces.
BEGINNING OF THE SPELLS of the divine ritual enacted in the temple of Amon–Re, king of the gods, in the course of every day by the chief wab–priest who is in his daily service.
SPELL FOR striking the fire.
WORDS TO BE SAID: “Come, come in peace, Eye of Horus, luminous, sound, rejuvenated in peace! May it shrine like Re in the two horizons, since the power of Seth has hidden himself before the Eye of Horus, who took it and brought it to put in its place for Horus. Concerning his Eye, Horus is triumphant, while the Eye of Horus repels the enemies of Amun–Re, Lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands, in all their places. May the King give an offering! I am pure.”
SPELL FOR taking the censer.
WORDS TO BE SAID: “Hail to you, [censer of the gods] who are in the following of Thoth; my arms are upon you as (those of) Horus, my hands upon you like (those of) Thoth, my fingers on you like (those of) Anubis, foremost of the divine booth. I am the living servant of Re. I am a wab–priest, since I am pure (wab). The purity of the gods is my purity. May the King give an offering! I am pure.”
[SPELL FOR] PLACING the incense–bowl on the censer arm.
WORDS TO BE SAID: “Hail to you, incense–bowl of […] the field in Mendes, the clay in Abydos. I am purified by the Eye of Horus so that I might perform the rites with you, they being pure for Amon–Re, Lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands, and his Ennead. May the King give an offering! I am pure.”
SPELL FOR putting incense on the flame.
WORDS TO BE SAID: “To the ba–soul of the East, to Horus of the East, to Kamutef within the solar disk, to the Terrible One who shines with his two Sound Eyes, to Re-harakhti,5 the great god, the winged power, foremost of the two southern conclaves of heaven.”
SPELL FOR advancing [to] the sacred place.
WORDS TO BE SAID: “O ba–souls of Heliopolis, as you are sound, so I am sound, and vice–versa. Your ka-spirits are sound precisely because my ka–spirit is sound before all the ka–spirits of the living. As all live, so I live. The two jugs of Atum are the protection of my body. For me Sakhmet the great, beloved of Ptah, placed life, stability and dominion around all my flesh by an oath of Thoth. I am Horus the chief, beautiful of respect, lord of terror, great of respect, high of plumage, great in Abydos. May the King give an offering! I am pure.”
ANOTHER SPELL.
“Awake happily in peace, Karnak, mistress of the temples of the gods and goddesses who are in her! O gods and goddesses who are in Karnak, gods and goddesses who are in Thebes, gods and goddesses who are in Heliopolis, gods and goddesses who are in Memphis, gods and goddesses who are in heaven, gods and goddesses who are in the earth, gods and goddesses who are in the South, North, West and East, the kings of Upper and Lower Egypt, children of kings, who took the White Crown, who made monuments for Amun in Karnak, may you awaken, may you be in peace. May you awaken happily in peace.”
SPELL FOR breaking the cord.
WORDS TO BE SAID: “The cord is broken, the seal is loosened. Bringing to you the Eye of Horus, I have come. You have your Eye, O Horus.”
SPELL FOR breaking the clay seal.
WORDS TO BE SAID: “The clay seal is broken, the waters are breached, the vessels of Osiris are drained. I have come not to drive the god away from his throne. It is to put the god upon his throne that I have come. May you be established upon your great throne, O Amun–Re, Lord of the thrones of the Two Lands. I am the one whom the gods initiated.9 May the King give an offering! I am pure.”
SPELL FOR unfastening the naos.
WORDS TO BE SAID: “The finger of Seth is withdrawn from the Eye of Horus so that it be well. The finger of Seth is released from the Eye of Horus so that it be well. The hide is loosened from the back of the god. O Amun–Re, Lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands, receive for yourself your two plumes and your White Crown as the Eye of Horus, the right (plume) being the right Eye, the left (plume) being the left Eye. You have your beauty, O Amun–Re, Lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands. Naked one, be clothed. Dressed one, be dressed, though I am but a prophet. It is the king who sent me to see the god.”12
SPELL FOR revealing the god.
WORDS TO BE SAID: “The doors of heaven are opened. The doors of the earth are opened. Hail to Geb, as the gods have said, established on their thrones. The doors of heaven are opened so that the Ennead might shrine. As Amun–Re, Lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands, is exalted, so the great Ennead is exalted upon their thrones. You have your beauty, O Amun–Re, Lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands. Naked one, be clothed. Dressed one, be dressed.”
SPELL FOR seeing the god.
WORDS TO BE SAID: “My face is protected from the god and vice–versa. O gods, make way for me so that I might pass. It is the king who has sent me to see the god.”
SPELL FOR kissing the ground.
WORDS TO BE SAID: “I have kissed the ground; I have embraced Geb. For Amun–Re, Lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands, have I performed the chants {by which} I am purified for him. You have your sweat, O gods. You have your perfumes, O goddesses. You have the perfumes of your bodies.15 My kiss is life for Pharaoh, praise for the Lord of the Two Lands.”
SPELL FOR prostrating.
WORDS TO BE SAID: “Hail to you, Amun–Re, Lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands, enduring upon your great throne. I have prostrated (myself) through fear of you, fearful of your dignity. I have embraced Geb and Hathor so that she might cause that I be great. I shall not fall to the slaughter of this day.”
SPELL FOR prostrating and for rising.
WORDS TO BE SAID: “Hail to you, Amun–Re, Lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands. I have not acted with your secretions; I have not removed your dignity.19 I have not conflated your appearance with that of another god. I have prostrated myself through fear of you, so that I might perceive what you desire. You shall not fall to your enemies on this day. Your enemies whom you hate, may you overthrow them as your enemies of this day.21 There is no wretchedness for the one who adores his lord.”
SPELL FOR kissing the ground with the face bowed.
WORDS TO BE SAID: “I have kissed the ground with my face bowed; I have caused Truth to ascend to you. There is no god who has done what I have done. I have not lifted up my face. I have not inflicted impurities. I have not conflated your appearance with that of another god.”
… (col. 5, 3)
SPELL FOR adoring Amun.
WORDS TO BE SAID: “Into your presence
Pharaoh has come, O male one of the gods, primordial one of the Two Lands, He of the Sacred arm, Amun–Re, Lord of the two plumes, great one with the crown of greatness on your head, king of the gods resident in Karnak, image of Amun,23 enduring in all things in your name of ‘Amun, more powerful than all the gods.’ They will not turn their backs on you in their name of ‘Ennead.’ ”
REFERENCES
Text: Königlichen Museen zu Berlin (1901: pls. I–XXXVII). Translations: Moret 1902; Roeder 1960:72–141; ANET 325–326; Assmann 1975:260–273; and Barta 1980: cols. 841–45.
B. ROYAL FOCUS
1. INSTRUCTIONS
MERIKARE (1.35)
Miriam Lichtheim
The text is preserved in three fragmentary papyri which only partly complement one another. They are Papyrus Leningrad 1116A, dating from the second half of the 18th Dynasty; P. Moscow 4658, from the very end of the 18th Dynasty; and P. Carlsberg 6, from the end of the 18th Dynasty or later. Unfortunately, the most complete manuscript, P. Leningrad, is also the most corrupt. The numerous lacunae and the many scribal errors make this text one of the most difficult.
The work is cast in the form of an Instruction spoken by an old king to his son and successor. The fragmentary beginning has preserved the name of the son: Merikare. But that of the father is lost except for the still visible outline of the cartouche and traces of two vertical hieroglyphs forming the end of the king’s name. This name is assumed to be that of one of the several kings of the 9th/10th Dynasties who bore the nomen Khety (Akhtoi). However, since the order of the kings of this dynasty has not yet been fully clarified, it has not been determined which of the several Khetys preceded Merikare. J. von Beckerath (1966:13–20) has proposed as the most suitable candidate the Khety whose prenomen was Nebkaure.
As an Instruction, it continues the genre Instruction which originated in the Old Kingdom. But a new element has been added: it is a royal instruction, and specifically, a royal testament. It is the legacy of a departing king which embodies a treatise on kingship.
The treatise on kingship in the form of a royal testament is a literary genre that was to flourish many centuries later in the Hellenistic world and subsequently in the Islamic East as well as in medieval Europe: the speculum regum. It is, of course, not possible to draw a connecting line from the ancient Egyptian type to its Hellenistic and medieval counterparts — far too little is preserved from all ancient literatures to make it possible to reconstruct their interconnections — but it is interesting to see the emergence of the genre. Not that the Instruction to Merikare was the first work of this type (an Instruction of an earlier king Khety is referred to in the text), but it is the earliest preserved, and probably also an early work of the genre, for it shows compositional weaknesses that suggest experimentation.
I believe the work to be pseudepigraphic in the sense of not having been composed by King Khety himself, but genuine in the sense of being a work composed in the reign of King Merikare, designed to announce the direction of his policy and containing valid, rather than fictitious, historical information.
Set beside such literary antecedents as the Maxims of Ptahhotep, the work shows intellectual and literary progress. Its morality has grown in depth and subtlety; and there is a parallel growth in the ability to formulate concepts, and to develop themes and topics at greater length. A fully sustained compositional coherence as found in comparable works of the 12th Dynasty has not been achieved. There are several instances in which the same topic reappears in different places, and in which a buildup to a climax is deflected. Yet an overall plan and progression can be recognized.
The first major portion, of which almost nothing is preserved, deals with rebellion and how to overcome it. The second major section gives advice on dealing wisely and justly with nobles and commoners and is climaxed by a view of the judgment in the hereafter. Next comes advice on raising troops and on performing the religious duties. Then follows the “historical section” in which the old king describes his accomplishments and advises on how to continue them. At this point there is the beginning of a paean on the glory of kingship which is interrupted by a reference to the tragic destruction of monuments in the holy region of Abydos, a matter that had previously been alluded to. This leads to a reflection on divine retribution and rises to the recognition that the deity prefers right doing to rich offerings. Then comes the true climax: a hymn to the creator god, the benefactor of mankind. The concluding section exhorts acceptance of the royal teachings.
The scribes of the New Kingdom divided the work into sections by means of rubrication. At an average such sections consist of twelve sentences and clauses. Where these rubrics were logical I have maintained them; but not all of the rubrics of the principal manuscript, P. Leningrad, are judicious, for the scribes often introduced rubrics mechanically without regard to content. The major topics encompass more than one rubricated section. The building blocks within each section are the small units of two, three, and four sentences, which are joined together by parallelism in its several forms, such as similarities, elaborations, and contrasts. And since all sentences and clauses are of approximately the same length, there results a clearly marked, regular, sentence rhythm.
All Instructions are composed in this rhythmic style marked by symmetrical sentences which I call the orational style. On occasion, when specific events are told, it turns into prose. At other moments it rises into poetry, as in the hymn to the creator–god which crowns the Instruction addressed to Merikare.
——
(25) The hothead is an inciter of citizens,
He creates factions among the young;
If you find that citizens adhere to him,
——
Denounce him before the councillors,
Suppress [him], he is a rebel,
The talker is a troublemaker for the city.
Curb the multitude, suppress its heat,
——
(30) ——
May you be justified before the god,
That a man may say [even in] your [absence]
That you punish in accordance [with the crime].
Good nature is a man’s heaven,
The cursing of the [furious] is painful.
If you are skilled in speech, you will win,
The tongue is [a king’s] sword;
Speaking is stronger than all fighting,
The skillful is not overcome.
—— on the mat,
The wise is a [❐school❒] to the nobles.
Those who know that he knows will not attack him,
No [crime] occurs when he is near;
Justice comes to him distilled,
Shaped in the sayings of the ancestors.
(35) Copy your fathers, your ancestors,
——
See, their words endure in books,
Open, read them, copy their knowledge,
He who is taught becomes skilled.
Don’t be evil, kindness is good,
Make your memorial last through love of you.
Increase the [people], befriend the town,
God will be praised for (your) donations,
One will ——
Praise your goodness,
Pray for your health —.
Respect the nobles, sustain your people,
Strengthen your borders, your frontier patrols;
It is good to work for the future,
One respects the life of the foresighted,
While he who trusts fails.
Make people come [to you] (40) through your good nature,
A wretch is who desires the land [of his neighbor],
A fool is who covets what others possess.
Life on earth passes, it is not long,
Happy is he who is remembered,
A million men do not avail the Lord of the Two Lands.
Is there [a man] who lives forever?
He who comes with Osiris passes,
Just as he leaves who indulged himself.
Advance your officials, so that they act by your laws,
He who has wealth at home will not be partial,
He is a rich man who lacks nothing.
The poor man does not speak justly,
Not righteous is one who says, “I wish I had,”
He inclines to him who will pay him.
Great is the great man whose great men are great,
Strong is (45) the king who has councillors,
Wealthy is he who is rich in his nobles.
Speak truth in your house,
That the officials of the land may respect you;
Uprightness befits the lord,
The front of the house puts fear in the back.
Do justice, then you endure on earth;
Calm the weeper, don’t oppress the widow,
Don’t expel a man from his father’s property,
Don’t reduce the nobles in their possessions.
Beware of punishing wrongfully,
Do not kill, it does not serve you.
Punish with beatings, with detention,
Thus will the land be well–ordered;
Except for the rebel whose plans are found out,
For god knows the treason plotters,
(50) God smites the rebels in blood.
He who is merciful ––– lifetime;
Do not kill a man whose virtues you know,
With whom you once chanted the writings,
Who was brought up … ––– before god,
Who strode freely in the secret place.
The ba comes to the place it knows,
It does not miss its former path,
No kind of magic holds it back,
It comes to those who give it water.
The Court that judges the wretch,
You know they are not lenient,
On the day of judging the miserable,
In the hour of doing their task.
It is painful when the accuser has knowledge,
Do not trust in length of years,
(55) They view a lifetime in an hour!
When a man remains over after death,
His deeds are set beside him as treasure,
And being yonder lasts forever.
A fool is who does what they reprove!
He who reaches them without having done wrong
Will exist there like a god,
Free-striding like the lords forever!
Raise your youths and the residence will love you,
Increase your subjects with ❐recruits❒,
See, your city is full of new growth.
Twenty years the youths indulge their wishes,
Then ❐recruits❒ go forth …
Veterans return to their children …
…
(60) I raised troops from them on my accession.
Advance your officials, promote your [soldiers],
Enrich the young men who follow you,
Provide with goods, endow with fields,
Reward them with herds.
Do not prefer the well born to the commoner,
Choose a man on account of his skills,
Then all crafts are done ––– …
Guard your borders, secure your forts,
Troops are useful to their lord.
Make your monuments [worthy] of the god,
This keeps alive their maker’s name,
A man should do what profits his ba.
In the monthly service, wear the white sandals,
Visit the temple, rob ❐observe❒ the mysteries,
Enter (65) the shrine, eat bread in god’s house;
Proffer libations, multiply the loaves,
Make ample the daily offerings,
It profits him who does it.
Endow your monuments according to your wealth,
Even one day gives to eternity,
An hour contributes to the future,
God recognizes him who works for him.
…
Troops will fight troops
As the ancestors foretold;
Egypt (70) fought in the graveyard,
Destroying tombs in vengeful destruction.
As I did it, so it happened,
As is done to one who strays from god’s path.
Do not deal evilly with the Southland,
You know what the residence foretold about it;
As this happened so that may happen.
❐Before they had trespassed❒ … —
I attacked This ❐straight to❒ its southern border ❐at Taut❒,
I engulfed it like a flood;
King Meriyebre, justified, had not done it;
Be merciful on account of it,
—— renew the treaties.
(75) No river lets itself be hidden,
It is good to work for the future.
You stand well with the Southland,
They come to you with tribute, with gifts;
I have acted like the forefathers:
If one has no grain to give,
Be kind, since they are humble before you.
Be sated with your bread, your beer,
Granite comes to you unhindered.
Do not despoil the monument of another,
But quarry stone in Tura.
Do not build your tomb out of ruins,
(Using) what had been made for what is to be made.
Behold, the king is lord of joy,
(80). You may rest, sleep in your strength,
Follow your heart, through what I have done,
There is no foe within your borders.
I arose as lord of the city,
Whose heart was sad because of the Northland;
From Hetshenu to ❐Sembaqa❒, and south to Two-Fish Channel
I pacified the entire West as far as the coast of the sea.
It pays taxes, it gives cedar wood,
One sees juniper wood which they give us.
The East abounds in bowmen,
❐Their labor❒ ——
The inner islands are turned back,
And every man within,
The temples say, “you are greater (85) than I.”
The land they had ravaged has been made into nomes,
All kinds of large towns [rare in its];
What was ruled by one is in the hands of ten,
Officials are appointed, tax–[lists drawn up].
When free men are given land,
They work for you like a single team;
No rebel will arise among them,
And Hapy will not fail to come.
The dues of the Northland are in your hand,
For the mooring–post is staked in the district I made in the East
From Hebenu to Horusway;
It is settled with towns, filled with people,
Of the best in the whole land,
To repel (90) attacks against them.
May I see a brave man who will copy it,
Who will add to what I have done,
A wretched heir would ❐disgrace❒ me.
But this should be said to the Bowman:
Lo, the miserable Asiatic,
He is wretched because of the place he’s in:
Short of water, bare of wood,
Its paths are many and painful because of mountains.
He does not dwell in one place,
Food propels his legs,
He fights since the time of Horus,
Not conquering nor being conquered,
He does not announce the day of combat,
Like a thief who darts about a group.
But as I live (95) and shall be what I am,
When the Bowmen were a sealed wall,
I breached [their strongholds],
I made Lower Egypt attack them,
I captured their inhabitants,
I seized their cattle,
Until the Asiatics abhorred Egypt.
Do not concern yourself with him,
The Asiatic is a crocodile on its shore,
It snatches from a lonely road,
It cannot seize from a populous town.
Medenyt has been restored to its nome,
Its one side is irrigated as far as Kem–Wer,
It is the ❐defense❒ against the Bowmen.
(100) Its walls are warlike, its soldiers many,
Its serfs know how to bear arms,
Apart from the free men within.
The region of Memphis totals ten thousand men,
Free citizens who are not taxed;
Officials are in it since the time it was residence,
The borders are firm, the garrisons valiant.
Many northerners irrigate it as far as the Northland,
Taxed with grain in the manner of free men;
Lo, it is the gateway of the Northland,
They form a dyke as far as (105) Hnes.
Abundant citizens are the heart’s support,
Beware of being surrounded by the serfs of the foe,
Caution prolongs life.
If your southern border is attacked,
The Bowmen will put on the girdle,
Build buildings in the Northland!
As a man’s name is not made small by his actions,
So a settled town is not harmed.
Build ——
The foe loves destruction and misery.
King Khety, the justified, laid down in teaching:
(110) He who is silent toward violence diminishes the offerings.
God will attack the rebel for the sake of the temple,
He will be overcome for what he has done,
He will be sated with what he planned to gain,
He will find no favor on the day of woe.
Supply the offerings, revere the god,
Don’t say, “it is trouble,” don’t slacken your hands.
He who opposes you attacks the sky,
A monument is sound for a hundred years;
If the foe understood, he would not attack them,
There is no one who has no (115) enemy.
The Lord of the Two Shores is one who knows,
A king who has courtiers is not ignorant;
As one wise did he come from the womb,
From a million men god singled him out.
A goodly office is kingship,
It has no son, no brother to maintain its memorial,
But one man provides for the other;
A man acts for him who was before him,
So that what he has done is preserved by his successor.
Lo, a shameful deed occurred in my time:
(120) The nome of This was ravaged;
Though it happened through my doing,
I learned it after it was done.
There was retribution for what I had done,
For it is evil to destroy,
Useless to restore what one has damaged,
To rebuild what one has demolished.
Beware of it! A blow is repaid by its like,
To every action there is a response.
While generation succeeds generation,
God who knows characters is hidden;
One can not oppose the lord of the hand,
He reaches all (125) that the eyes can see.
One should revere the god on his path,
Made of costly stone, fashioned of bronze.
As watercourse is replaced by watercourse,
So no river allows itself to be concealed,
It breaks the channel in which it was hidden.
So also the ba goes to the place it knows,
And strays not from its former path.
Make worthy your house of the west,
Make firm your station in the graveyard,
By being upright, by doing justice,
Upon which men’s hearts rely.
The loaf of the upright is preferred
To the ox of the evildoer.
Work for god, he will work for you also,
With offerings (130) that make the altar flourish,
With carvings that proclaim your name,
God thinks of him who works for him.
Well tended is mankind — god’s cattle,
He made sky and earth for their sake,
He subdued the water monster, a
He made breath for their noses to live.
They are his images, who came from his body,
He shines in the sky for their sake;
He made for them plants and cattle,
Fowl and fish to feed them.
He slew his foes, reduced his children,
When they thought of making rebellion.
He makes daylight for their sake,
He sails by to see them.
He has built (135) his shrine around them,
When they weep he hears.
He made for them rulers in the egg,
Leaders to raise the back of the weak.
He made for them magic as weapons
To ward off the blow of events,
Guarding them by day and by night.
He has slain the traitors among them,
As a man beats his son for his brother’s sake,
For god knows every name.
Do not neglect my speech,
Which lays down all the laws of kingship,
Which instructs you, that you may rule the land,
And may you reach me with none to accuse you!
Do not kill (140) one who is close to you,
Whom you have favored, god knows him;
He is one of the fortunate ones on earth,
Divine are they who follow the king!
Make yourself loved by everyone,
A good character is remembered
[When his time] has passed.
May you be called “he who ended the time of trouble,”
By those who come after in the House of Khety,
In thinking of what has come today.
Lo, I have told you the best of my thoughts,
Act by what is set before you!
REFERENCES
Text: Golenischeff 1916 pls. ix–xiv; Volten 1945:3–82 and pls. 1–4. Translation: Gardiner 1914:20–36; Erman 1927:75–84; ANET 414–418; Scharff 1936 (lines 69–110 and most of lines 111–144); Lichtheim AEL 1:97–109. Discussion: Posener 1950; 1962; 1963; 1964; 1965; 1966; Drioton 1960:90–91; Williams, 1964:16–19; Seibert, 1967:90–98; Müller 1967:117–123; Kees 1962:86.
AMENEMHET (1.36)
Miriam Lichtheim
When first studied, the text was regarded as the genuine work of King Amenemhet I, composed by him after he had escaped an attempt on his life. The currently prevailing view is that the king was in fact assassinated in the thirtieth year of his reign, and that the text was composed by a royal scribe at the behest of the new king, Sesostris I.
The attack on the king’s life is told in a deliberately veiled manner; yet there are sufficient hints in the account and elsewhere in the text to convey to the Middle Kingdom audience that the speaker is the deceased king who speaks to his son in a revelation, and to later audiences, including the sophisticated one of the New Kingdom, that the work was composed by a court writer.
It is a powerful and imaginative composition, distinguished by its personal tone and by the bitterness born of experience with which the old king castigates the treachery of his subjects, and warns his son not to place trust in any man. The theme, then, is regicide. In contrast with the theme “national distress,” regicide was not a topic that could be treated fully and openly, for it conflicted too strongly with the dogma of the divine king. Hence the work is the only one of its kind.
The orational style is used throughout, except in the description of the assassination which is rendered in prose.
The text was preserved in Papyrus Millingen of the 18th Dynasty, a copy of which was made by A. Peyron in 1843. Subsequently the original papyrus was lost. Portions of the work are preserved on three wooden tablets of the 18th Dynasty, some papyrus fragments, and numerous ostraca of the New Kingdom.
The line numbers are those of Papyrus Millingen, which is a good manuscript but fragmentary in the final portion.
(I.1) Beginning of the Instruction made by the majesty of King Sehetepibre, son of Re, Amenemhet, the justified, as he spoke in a revelation of truth, to his son the All–Lord. He said:
Risen as god, hear what I tell you,
That you may rule the land, govern the shores,
Increase well–being!
Beware of subjects who are nobodies,
Of whose plotting one is not aware.
Trust not a brother, know not a friend,
Make no (I.5) intimates, it is worthless.
When you lie down, guard your heart yourself,
For no man has adherents on the day of woe.
I gave to the beggar, I raised the orphan,
I gave success to the poor as to the wealthy;
But he who ate my food raised opposition,
He whom I gave my trust used it to plot.
Wearers of my fine linen looked at me as if they were needy,
Those perfumed with my myrrh ❐poured water while wearing it❒.
You my living peers, my partners among men,
Make for me mourning such as has not (I.10) been heard,
For so great a combat had not yet been seen!
If one fights in the arena forgetful of the past,
Success will elude him who ignores what he should know.
It was after supper, night had come. I was taking an hour of rest, lying on my bed, for I was weary. As my heart (II.1) began to follow sleep, weapons for my protection were turned against me, while I was like a snake of the desert. I awoke at the fighting, ❐alert❒, and found it was a combat of the guard. Had I quickly seized weapons in my hand, I would have made the cowards retreat ❐in haste❒. But no one is strong at night; no one can fight alone; no success is achieved without a helper.
(II.5) Thus bloodshed occurred while I was without you; before the courtiers had heard I would hand over to you; before I had sat with you so as to advise you. For I had not prepared for it, had not expected it, had not foreseen the failing of the servants.
Had women ever marshaled troops?
Are rebels nurtured in the palace?
Does one release water that destroys the soil
And deprives people of their crops?
No harm had come to me since my birth,
No one equaled me as a doer of deeds.
(II.10) I journeyed to Yebu, I returned to the Delta,
Having stood on the land’s borders I observed its interior.
I reached the borders of ❐the strongholds❒
By my strength and my feats.
I was grain–maker, beloved of Nepri,
Hapy honored me on every field.
None hungered in my years,
None (III.1) thirsted in them,
One sat because I acted and spoke of me,
I had assigned everything to its place.
I subdued lions, I captured crocodiles,
I repressed those of Wawat,
I captured the Mediai,
I made the Asiatics do the dog walk.
I built myself a house decked with gold,
Its ceiling of lapis lazuli,
Walls of silver, floors of [acacia wood],
(III.5) Doors of copper, bolts of bronze,
Made for eternity, prepared for all time,
I know because I am its lord.
Behold, much hatred is in the streets,
The wise says “yes,” the fool says “no,”
For no one knows it ❐without your presence❒,
Sesostris my son!
As my feet depart, you are in my heart,
My eyes behold you, child of a happy hour
❐Before the people as they hail you❒.
I have made the past and arranged the future,
I gave you the contents of my heart.
You (III.10) wear the white crown of a god’s son,
The seal is in its place, assigned you by me,
Jubilation is in the bark of Re,
Kingship is again what it was in the past!
…
Raise your monuments, establish your strongholds,
Fight.…
REFERENCES
Text: Griffith 1896:35–51; Maspero 1914; Volten 1945:104–128; Lopez 1963:29–33; Helck 1969. Translation: BAR 1:474–483; Erman 1927:72–74; ANET 418–419; Lichtheim AEL 1:135–139. Discussion: Posener 1956; Gardiner 1939:479–496; Malinine 1934:63–74; de Buck 1939:847–852; 1946:183–200; Faulkner 1932:69–73; Anthes 1957:176–190; 1958:208–209; Goedicke 1968:15–21.
2. HISTORIOGRAPHY
KING LISTS (1.37)
James K. Hoffmeier
King–lists of various types abound in ancient Egyptian sources. Technically, a collection of three or more names is a “group” and a true king–list arranges names in proper historical order and provides the length of reign. Following this definition, the only Egyptian source that meets these requirements is the Turin Canon, and it is not fully preserved. Nevertheless, the term king–list has been applied to a wider variety of lists, including the funerary offering lists, such as those at Karnak, Abydos and Sakkara. Such “cultic assemblages of deceased kings,” as Donald Redford calls them, are abundant, and vary considerably in length. Of this type, dozens are known, but they are rarely consulted in historical reconstructions because of their brevity and, in some cases, confused order.
While no direct ties exist between the Old Testament and the king-lists presented here, they do shed light on genealogical lists such as those found in Genesis, 1 Chronicles and elsewhere. The Turin Canon contains what is believed to have been an exhaustive list of kings who ruled beginning with Meni (Menes) down into the empire period, complete with the duration of reigns. Prior to the beginning of 1st Dynasty in column II of the papyrus, the initial column contains a list of deities who are called “king of Upper and Lower Egypt.” Following this title, the deity’s name is written in a cartouche, the cylindrical enclosure reserved for royal names. The length of the reigns are also added after the name, and the figures are extremely long, e.g. Thoth 7726 years and another deity whose name is lost, 7718 years. Once the dynastic kings are introduced, the figures are realistic. A parallel might be drawn between this practice and that found in the Sumerian King–list and the Genesis 5 and 11 genealogies. In both of these cases, very long reigns are listed prior to the flood, but the numbers are reduced significantly thereafter. Unfortunately, the fragmentary state of column I prevents us from knowing how the Egyptian scribes understood the difference between the pre–dynastic divine rulers and Meni and his successors. The inclusion of pre–dynastic (legendary?) divine rulers along with historical kings from the 1st Dynasty on, indicates that the Egyptians made no distinction between “historical” and “mythic” or “legendary” individuals as modern historians do.
Unlike the original Turin Canon, the famous king–lists at Abydos and Sakkara are not complete lists of the kings from Dynasties 1–19. Rather they are selective. For instance, the kings of the 1st and 2nd Intermediate periods, as well as Queen Hatshepsut and Akhenaten, Smenkhkare, Tutankhamun, and Ay, the so called Amarna kings are omitted in the Abydos list. Similar selectivity is found in the Sakkara list. The practice of omitting entire epochs, such as the Amarna and Hyksos periods, were ways that later kings could expunge embarrassing forebears and not make offerings to them. On the other hand, there is no evidence that superfluous names were added to the Egyptian lists. Selectivity, apparently, violated no literary or political expectations in ancient Egypt. By extension, it holds that the omission of individuals or groups of ancestors from Israelite genealogies in the Bible was practiced for ideological or structural purposes, while not violating any Near Eastern canons of historiography.
1. KARNAK LIST (1.37A)
A small chapel once stood in Thutmose III’s Akh–menu temple complex at Karnak. Over 150 years ago it was removed to the Louvre in Paris. While its list is offertory in nature, it is made up of seated figures of the kings with various regal titles before the cartouche. The names are grouped in eight parts, but the particular alignments are not always clear. The importance of these name–lists is that they include names omitted from AL and SL, such as earlier Theban 11th Dynasty kings, and some from 2nd Intermediate Period, are included. There has been considerable scholarly discussion about the criteria used for the compilation of the lists. Suggestions include that these were monarchs who actually ruled from Thebes or those who engaged in building activities there; that the figures represent actual statues of royal forebears at Karnak or that lists were comprised of ancient offering lists. Regardless of how this list originated, its use for historical reconstruction is of limited value.
(Group I)
1. [lost]
2. Sneferu
3. Sahure
4. Inen/Iny
5. Isesi
6. [lost]
7. [lost]
8. Sekhemre–semntawyre
(Group II)
1. [lost]
2. Intef
3. In[tef]
4. Mon[tuhotep]
5. Mayor Int[ef]
6. [Sa Re T]eti
7. [P]epy
8. Merenre
(Group III)
1. Sehetepibre (Amenemhet I)
2. Nebkaure (Amenemhet II)
3. [lost]
4. [lost]
5. Maakherure (Amenemhet IV)
6. Sobekneferu
7. Intef
(Group IV)
1. Kheperkare (Senusert I)
2. Sekennenre
3. Senakhtenre
4. Niuserre
5. Nebkheperre (Senusert II)
6. Nebhepetre (Montuhotep II)
7. Sneferkare
8. //////re
(Group V)
1. [lost]
2. Khaneferre
3. Khasekhemre
4. Sekhemre–snefertawy
5. Sekhemre–khuitawy
6. Seankhibre
7. Sewadjenre
8. ////kau–[re]
(Group VI)
1. [lost]
2. Merisekhemre
3. Merikaure
4. ///s re-wesertawy
5. ////////re
6. Snefer///re
7. Khahe[tep]re
8. Khaankhre
(Group VII)
1. [Sekhem]re–wahkhau
2. Sewahenre
3. Merihetepre
4. Khuitawyre
5. [lost]
6. [lost]
7. Sekhemre–wadjkhau
(Group VIII)
1. ///////re
2. Snefer///re
3. Sewadjenre
4. Sekhemre–[///]tawy
5. [lost]
6. [lost]
7. [lost]
2. ABYDOS LIST (AL) (1.37B)
In the cenotaph of Seti I at Abydos, which was completed by Ramesses II, is found a sequential list of kings from Dynasty 1 through reigning monarch Seti of Dynasty 19. To the left of the list, stand Seti and crown–prince Ramesses who holds a papyrus containing the list that is recorded to the right. The accompanying inscription indicates that the list was made up of the beneficiaries of the offerings being made. Because this list was made up of the royal ancestors whom the reigning monarch wished to honor, it was selective. Thus while historians may wish to consult this list, and ones like it (e.g. the Sakkara list), it is not relied upon for historical reconstruction without the aid of more complete lists, like the Turin Canon or an annalistic report such as the Palermo Stone.
(Dynasty 1)
1. Meni
2. Teti
3. Iti
4. Ita
5. Semti
6. Merpabia
7. (Not translatable)
8. Qebeh
(Dynasty 2)
9. Bedjau
10. Kakau
11. Baninetjer
12. Wadjnes
13. Sendi
14. Djadjay
(Dynasty 3)
15. Nebka
16. //djeser–sa
17. (Djeser)–teti
18. Sedjes
19. Neferkare
(Dynasty 4)
20. Sneferu
21. Khufu
22. Djedefre
23. Khaefre
24. Menkaure
25. Shepseskaf
(Dynasty 5)
26. Userkaf
27. Sahure
28. Kakai
29. Reneferef
30. Niuserre
31. Menkauhor
32. Djedkare
33. Unas
(Dynasty 6)
34. Teti
35. Userkare
36. Meryre (Pepy I)
37. Merenre
38. Neferkare (Pepy II)
39. Merenre–Antyemsaef
(1st Intermediate Period)
40. Netjerkare
41. Menkare
42. Neferkare
43. Neferkare–Neby
44. Djdekare–Shema
45. Neferkare–Khenedu
46. Merenhor
47. Sneferka
48. Nikare
49. Neferkare–Teruru
50. Neferkahor
51. Neferkare–Pepysenb
52. Sneferka–Anu
53. Ka[//]kaure
54. Neferkaure
55. Neferkauhor
56. Neferirkare
(Dynasty 11)
57. Nebhepetre (Montuhotep II)
58. Sankhkare (Montuhotep III)
(Dynasty 12)
59. Sehetepibre (Amenemhet I)
60. Kheperkare (Senusert I)
61. Nebkaure (Amenemhet II)
62. Khakheperre (Senusert II)
63. Khakaure (Senusert III)
64. Nimaare (Amenemhet III)
65. Maakherure (Amenemhet IV)
(Dynasty 18)
66. Nebpehtyre (Ahmose)
67. Djeserkare (Amenhotep I)
68. Aakheperkare (Thutmose I)
69. Aakheperenre (Thutmose II)
70. Menkheperre (Thutmose III)
71. Aakheperrure (Amenhotep II)
72. Menkheperrure (Thutmose IV)
73. Nebmaatre (Amenhotep III)
74. Djeserkheperure–setepenre (Horemheb)
(Dynasty 19)
75. Menphtyre (Ramesses I)
76. Menmaatre (Seti I)
3. SAKKARA KING LIST (SL) (1.37C)
Carved on the Sakkara tomb of the “Overseer of Works” from the reign of Ramesses II is the so called “Sakkara King List.” Like its counterpart at Abydos, this is an offering list which originally recorded the names of 58 monarchs. Above each cartouche is the word nsw, “king” with determinative of a seated king, a white or red crown; they alternate throughout. Below each cartouche is the epithet mʾʿ ḫrw, “justified,” indicating that these kings were deceased. While this list is laid out much like Seti I list from Abydos, it includes kings not mentioned at Abydos. For instance, while AL records the names of eight 1st Dynasty kings, SL has but two. Among those excised is Meni, the legendary Menes of Herodotus. Owing to the selectivity, and sequential problems with this list, it is not relied upon in serious historical reconstruction.
(Dynasty 1)
1. Merbiapen
2. Qebehu
(Dynasty 2)
3. Baunetjer
4. Kakau
5. Banetjeru
6. Wadjnes
7. Senedj
8. Neferkare
9. Neferkasokar
10. Hudjefa
11. Beby
(Dynasty 3)
12. Djeser
13. Djeser–Teti
14. Nebkare
15. Huny
(Dynasty 4)
16. Sneferu
17. Khufu
18. Djedefre
19. ////uf
20. [lost]
21. [lost]
22. [lost]
23. [lost]
24. [lost]
(Dynasty 5)
25. Userka[ef]
26. [S]ahure
27. Neferirkare
28. Shepseskare
29. Khaneferre
30. Menkahor
31. Maakare
32. Unas
(Dynasty 6)
33. Teti
34. Pepy (I)
35. Merenre
36. Neferkare (Pepy II)
(Dynasty 11)
37. Nebhepetre (Montuhotep II)
38. Sankhkare (Montuhotep III)
(Dynasty 12)
39. Sehetepibre (Amenemhet I)
40. Kheperkare (Senusert I)
41. Nebkare (Amenemhet II)
42. Khakhepere (Senusert II)
43. Khakare (Senusert III)
44. [Nimaa]re (Amenemhet III)
45. Maakherure (Amenemhet IV)
46. Sobekkare
(Dynasty 18)
47. Nebpehtyre (Ahmose)
48. Djeserkare (Amenhotep I)
49. [lost] (Thutmose I)
50. [lost] (Thutmose II)
51. [lost] (Thutmose III)
52. [lost] (Amenhotep II)
53. [lost] (Thutmose IV)
54. [lost] (Amenhotep I)
55. [Djeserkhepere S]etepen[re] (Horemeheb)
(Dynasty 19)
56. Men [pehtyre] (Ramesses I)
57. Men [maatre] (Seti I)
58. [Usermaatre] Setepenre (Ramesses II)
4. TURIN CANON (1.37D)
Located in the Museo Egizio in Turin, Italy, this papyrus is the most important source for the historical and chronological reconstruction of ancient Egypt. It is more than a list. Rather it originally contained a sequence of kings from Dynasty 1, with regnal years assigned to each king. Beginning with Menes (Meni), it continues down to the 19th Dynasty, the period to which this papyrus dates. According to Sir Alan Gardiner who published a hieroglyphic transcription of the hieratic original (1959), it is a “genuine chronicle remarkably like the Manetho of Africanus and Eusebius” (1962:47). This papyrus was apparently in near perfect condition when discovered by Drovetti in 1822 in western Thebes. However, by the time Champollion studied it a few years later, it was regrettably in a poor, fragmented state, with large sections having been lost or destroyed in the intervening years. This sad fact has long been lamented by historians because knowledge of certain kings and durations of certain reigns remain lost. Nevertheless, the Turin canon continues to be the most important document from pharaonic times for historical reconstruction. The list begins with a series of deities, such as Seth, Horus and Thoth who are called “King of Upper and Lower Egypt” and whose names are written in a cartouche. Following this in column II is the sequence of kings beginning with Meni, the legendary Menes. In the following translation, the three columns represent: the column and line number of the manuscript, the royal name, and the year/month/day.
(Dynasty 1)
II.11 Meni lost
II.12 It// lost
II.13 lost lost
II.15 //[H]ori lost
II.16 Semti lost
II.17 Merbiapen lost
II.18 Semsem lost
II.19 [Ke]beh lost
II.20 Bau[netjer] lost
II.21 [Ka]kau lost
(Dynasty 2)
II.22 [Bau]netjeren lost
II.23 lost lost
II.24 Senedj lost
II.25 Aaka lost
III.1 Neferkasokar 8 / 3 /[//]
III.2 Hudjefa [11]/ 8 / 4
III.3 Bebty 27 / 2 / 1
(Dynasty 3)
III.4 Nebka 19/0/0
III.5 Djeserit 19
III.6 Djeserti 6
III.7 [Hudje]fa 6
III.8 Hu[ni] 24 / [lost]
(Dynasty 4)
III.9 Sneferu 24 / [lost]
III.10 [Khufu] 23 /[lost]
III.11 [Djedefre] 8 /[lost]
III.12 Kha[efre] lost
III.13 lost lost
III.14 [Menkaure] 18 /[lost]
III.15 lost 4
III.16 lost 2
(Dynasty 5)
III.17 [User]ka[f] 7
III.18 [Sahure] 12
III.19 lost lost
III.20 lost 7
III.21 lost // + 1
III.22 lost 11
III.23 Menkauhor 8
III.24 Djedy (Djedkare) 28
III.25 Unas 30
(Dynasty 6)
IV.1 lost lost
IV.2 lost lost / 6 / 21
IV.3 lost 20
IV.4 lost 44
IV.5 [Pepi II] 90 + X
IV.6 [Merenre] 1 / 1 /
IV.7 lost lost
IV.8 Nitikerty lost
IV.9 Neferka, child lost
IV.10 Nefer 2 / 1 / 1
IV.11 Ibi 4 / 2
IV.12 lost 2 / 1 / 1
IV.13 lost 1 / 0 /1/2 day
IV.14–19 [Poorly preserved or lost]
(Dynasties 9–10)
IV.20 Neferkare lost
IV.21 Khety lost
IV.22 Senenh/// lost
IV.23 //////// lost
IV.24 Mer///// lost
IV.25 Shed//// lost
IV.26 H////// lost
(Dynasty 11)
V.1–11 lost lost
V.12 Wah/// lost
V.13 lost lost
V.14 lost 49
V.15 lost 8
V.16 Nebhepetre 51
V.17 Sankhka[re] 12
V.18 Total 143 years
(Dynasty 12)
V.19 [Kings of ]the Capital Itjtawy
V.20 [Sehet]epib[re] lost
V.21 [Kheper] ka[re] 45/ lost
V.22 lost 10 +
V.23 lost 19 / lost
V.24 lost 30+ /lost
V.25 lost 40+ /lost
VI.1 Maakherure 9 / 3 / 27
VI.2 [Sobek]nefer[u]re 3 / 10 / 14
VI.3 Kings of the [Capital Itjtawy] 8,
total 213 / 1 / 16
(Dynasty 13)
VI.5 [Khitawy]re 2 / 3 /24
VI.6 [Sekhemka]re lost
VI.7 //amenemhet 3 /lost
VI.8 Sehetepibre 1
VI.9 Iufni lost
VI.10 Sankhibre lost
VI.11 Smenkare lost/lost/4
VI.12 Sehetepibre lost/lost/3
VI.13 Sewadjkare lost/lost/6
VI.14 Nedjemibre / /lost
VI.15 Re–Sobek[hote]p 2
VI.16 Ren[se]neb, he function for 4 months
VI.17 Autibre / 7 /
VI.18 Sedjefakare lost
VI.19 Sekhemre–khuitawy–Sobekhetep lost
VI.20 User[ka]re – //re//ndjer lost
VI.21 [Smenekh]kare the General lost
VI.22 /////ka[re] – Intef lost
VI.23 /////ib–Seth blank
VI.24 Sekhemkare–Sobekhetep 3 / 2/lost
VI.25 Khasekhemre–Neferhotep 11/ 1 /lost
VI.26 Sihathor lost/ 3 /lost
VI.27 Khaneferre–Sobekhetep lost
VII.1 Khahetepre 4 / 8 / 29
VII.2 Wahibre–Iaib 10 / 8 / 28
VII.3 Merneferre 23 / 8 / 18
VII.4 Merhotepre 2 / 2 / 9
VII.5 Seankhenswadjtu 3 / 2 / lost
VII.6 Mersekhemre–Ined 3 / 1 / 1
VII.7 Sewadjkare–Hori 5 / 8 /
VII.8 Merika[//]–Sobek[hetep] 2/ // / 4
VII.9 lost lost/lost/11
VII.10 lost lost/lost/3
VII.11 lost lost
VII.12 lost lost
VII.13 ////mose lost
VII.14 ////maatre– [I]bi lost
VII.15 ////webenre–Hor[i] lost
VII.16 ////kare lost
VII.17 ////enre lost
VII.18 //////re lost
VII.19lostlost
VII.20lostlost
VII.21///rrelost
VII.22Merkheperre lost
VII.23 Merika[re] lost
VIII.1 Nehesy lost/ 3 /
VIII.2 Khatyre lost/3 /
VIII.3 Nebefautre 1 / 5 / 15
VIII.4 Sehebre 3 / lost / 1
VIII.5 Merdjefare 3 /lost
VIII.6 Sewadjkare 1 / lost
VIII.7 Nebdjefare 1 / lost
VIII.8 Webenre 1
VIII.9 lost 1 / 1 / lost
VIII.10 /// djefa[re] 4 /
VIII.11 ///[w]eben[re] 3 /
VIII.12 Autibre lost
VIII.13 Heribre lost/lost/ 29
VIII.14 Nebsenre lost / 5 / 20
VIII.15 //////re lost / lost / 21
VIII.16 Sekheperenre 2 / /1
VIII.17 Djedkherure 2 / /5
VIII.18 Sankhibre lost / lost / 19
VIII.19 Nefertumre lost / lost / 18
VIII.20 Sekhem//re lost
VIII.21 Kakemutre lost / lost
VIII.22 Neferibre lost / lost
VIII.23 Ia////re lost / lost
VIII.24 Kha///re lost
VIII.25 Aaka///re lost
VIII.26 Smen///re lost
VIII.27 Djedi///re lost
IX.1–6 lost lost
IX.7 Senefer[ka/]re lost
IX.8 Men////re lost
IX.9 Djedi//[re] lost
IX.10–13 lost lost
IX.14 Inek/// lost
IX.15 Ineb/// lost
IX.16 Ip//// lost
IX.17–27 lost lost
IX.28 ////ren–Hapu lost
IX.29 ///ka[re?]–Nebennati lost
IX.30 ///ka[re?]–Bebnem lost
IX.31 lost lost
X lost lost
X.20 Khamudy
X.21 [Total of] Foreign [Chieftains] 8, they functioned 100+ years.
X.21–30 (very fragmentary)
(Dynasty 17)
XI.1 Sekhemre–//// 3 /
XI.2 Sekhemre–//// 16 /
XI.3 Sekhemre–s[menttawy] 1 /
XI.4 Sewadje[n]re ///1 /
XI.5 Nebiryautre 29 /
XI.6 Nebitautre lost
XI.7 Semen[wadj?]re lost
XI.8 Seweser///re 12 /
XI.9 Sekehre–Shedwaset lost
XI.10–15 lost lost
XI.16 Weser///re lost
XI.17 Weser///// lost
XI.18–end (lost or too fragmentary for translation)
REFERENCES
Caulfeild and Saint Thomas 1902:pl.43; Gardiner 1959; 1962:430–445; Kitchen 1992:328–329; Redford 1986; Swelim 1983; Urk IV.
C. INDIVIDUAL FOCUS
1. NARRATIVES
SINUHE (1.38)
Miriam Lichtheim
The numerous, if fragmentary, copies of this work testify to its great popularity, and it is justly considered the most accomplished piece of Middle Kingdom prose literature.
The two principal manuscripts are: (1) P. Berlin 3022 (abbr., B) which dates from the 12th Dynasty. In its present state, it lacks the beginning of the story and contains a total of 311 lines; (2) P. Berlin 10499 (abbr., R) which contains 203 lines and includes the beginning. It dates to the end of the Middle Kingdom.
A third major copy is on a large ostracon in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, which gives 130, partly incomplete, lines. It is, however, an inferior copy, dating to the 19th Dynasty. Its principal value lies in the detailed commentary of its editor, J. Barns. In addition, small portions of the text are preserved on papyrus fragments and on numerous ostraca.
The present translation uses as principal manuscripts the text of R for the beginning and of B for the bulk, and incorporates an occasional variant from other manuscripts.
(R 1) The Prince, Count, Governor of the domains of the sovereign in the lands of the Asiatics, true and beloved Friend of the King, the Attendant Sinuhe, says:
I was an attendant who attended his lord, a servant of the royal harem, waiting on the Princess, the highly praised Royal Wife of King Sesostris in Khenemsut, the daughter of King Amenemhet in Kanefru, Nefru, the revered.
Year 30, third month of the inundation, day 7: the god ascended to his horizon. The King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Sehetepibre, flew to heaven and united with the sun–disk, the divine body merging with its maker. Then the residence was hushed; hearts grieved; the great portals were shut; (10) the courtiers were head–on–knee; the people moaned.
His majesty, however, had despatched an army to the land of the Tjemeh, with his eldest son as its commander, the good god Sesostris. He had been sent to smite the foreign lands and to punish those of Tjehenu. (15) Now he was returning, bringing captives of the Tjehenu and cattle of all kinds beyond number. The officials of the palace sent to the western border to let the king’s son know the event that had occurred at the court. The messengers met him on the road, (20) reaching him at night. Not a moment did he delay. The falcon flew with his attendants, without letting his army know it.
But the royal sons who had been with him on this expedition had also been sent for. (B I) One of them was summoned while I was standing (there). I heard his voice, as he spoke, while I was in the near distance. My heart fluttered, my arms spread out, a trembling befell all my limbs. I removed myself in leaps, to seek a hiding place. I put (5) myself between two bushes, so as to leave the road to its traveler.
I set out southward. I did not plan to go to the residence. I believed there would be turmoil and did not expect to survive it. I crossed Maaty near Sycamore; I reached Isle–of–Snefru. I spent the day there at the edge (10) of the cultivation. Departing at dawn I encountered a man who stood on the road. He saluted me while I was afraid of him. At dinner time I reached “Cattle-Quay.” I crossed in a barge without a rudder, by the force of the westwind. I passed to the east of the quarry, (15) at the height of “Mistress of the Red Mountain.” Then I made my way northward. I reached the “Walls of the Ruler,” which were made to repel the Asiatics and to crush the Sand-farers. I crouched in a bush for fear of being seen by the guard on duty upon the wall.
I set out (20) at night. At dawn I reached Peten. I halted at “Isle-of-Kem-Wer.” An attack of thirst overtook me; I was parched, my throat burned. I said, “This is the taste of death.” I raised my heart and collected myself when I heard the lowing sound of cattle (25) and saw Asiatics. One of their leaders, who had been in Egypt, recognized me. He gave me water and boiled milk for me. I went with him to his tribe. What they did for me was good.
Land gave me to land. I traveled to Byblos; I returned to Qedem. I spent (30) a year and a half there. Then Ammunenshi, the ruler of Upper Retenu, took me to him, saying to me: “You will be happy with me; you will hear the language of Egypt.” He said this because he knew my character and had heard of my skill, Egyptians who were with him having borne witness for me. He said to me: “Why (35) have you come here? Has something happened at the residence?” I said to him: “King Sehetepibre departed to the horizon, and one did not know the circumstances.” But I spoke in half-truths: “When I returned from the expedition to the land of the Tjemeh, it was reported to me and my heart grew faint. It carried (40) me away on the path of flight, though I had not been talked about; no one had spat in my face; I had not heard a reproach; my name had not been heard in the mouth of the herald. I do not know what brought me to this country; it is as if planned by god. As if a Delta-man saw himself in Yebu, a marsh-man in Nubia.”
Then he said to me: “How then is that land without that excellent god, fear of whom was throughout (45) the lands like Sakhmet in a year of plague?” I said to him in reply: “Of course his son has entered into the palace, having taken his father’s heritage.”
He is a god without peer,
No other comes before him;
He is lord of knowledge, wise planner, skilled leader,
One goes and comes by (50) his will.
He was the smiter of foreign lands,
While his father stayed in the palace,
He reported to him on commands carried out.
He is a champion who acts with his arm,
A fighter who has no equal,
When seen engaged in archery,
When joining the melee.
Horn–curber who makes hands turn weak,
His foes (55) can not close ranks;
Keen–sighted he smashes foreheads,
None can withstand his presence.
Wide–striding he smites the fleeing,
No retreat for him who turns him his back;
Steadfast in time of attack,
He makes turn back and turns not his back.
Stouthearted when he sees the mass,
He lets not slackness fill his heart;
(60) Eager at the sight of combat,
Joyful when he works his bow.
Clasping his shield he treads under foot,
No second blow needed to kill;
None can escape his arrow,
None turn aside his bow.
The Bowmen flee before him,
As before the might of the goddess;
As he fights he plans the goal,
(65) Unconcerned about all else.
Lord of grace, rich in kindness,
He has conquered through affection;
His city loves him more than itself,
Acclaims him more than its own god.
Men outdo women in hailing him,
Now that he is king;
Victor while yet in the egg,
Set to be ruler since his birth.
Augmenter of those born with him,
(70) He is unique, god–given;
Happy the land that he rules!
Enlarger of frontiers,
He will conquer southern lands,
While ignoring northern lands,
Though made to smite Asiatics and tread on Sand–farers!
“Send to him! Let him know your name as one who inquires while being far from his majesty. He will not fail to do (75) good to a land that will be loyal to him.”
He said to me: “Well then, Egypt is happy knowing that he is strong. But you are here. You shall stay with me. What I shall do for you is good.”
He set me at the head of his children. He married me to his eldest daughter. He let me choose for myself of his land, (80) of the best that was his, on his border with another land. It was a good land called Yaa. Figs were in it and grapes. It had more wine than water. Abundant was its honey, plentiful its oil. All kinds of fruit were on its trees. Barley was there and emmer, and no end of cattle of all kinds. (85) Much also came to me because of the love of me; for he had made me chief of a tribe in the best part of his land. Loaves were made for me daily, and wine as daily fare, cooked meat, roast fowl, as well as desert game. (90) For they snared for me and laid it before me, in addition to the catch of my hounds. Many sweets were made for me, and milk dishes of all kinds.
I passed many years, my children becoming strong men, each a master of his tribe. The envoy who came north or went south to the residence (95) stayed with me. I let everyone stay with me. I gave water to the thirsty; I showed the way to him who had strayed; I rescued him who had been robbed. When Asiatics conspired to attack the Rulers of Hill–Countries, I opposed their movements. For this ruler of (100) Retenu made me carry out numerous missions as commander of his troops. Every hill tribe against which I marched I vanquished, so that it was driven from the pasture of its wells. I plundered its cattle, carried off its families, seized their food, and killed people (105) by my strong arm, by my bow, by my movements and my skillful plans. I won his heart and he loved me, for he recognized my valor. He set me at the head of his children, for he saw the strength of my arms.
There came a hero of Retenu, d
To challenge me (110) in my tent.
A champion was he without peer,
He had subdued it all.
He said he would fight with me,
He planned to plunder me,
He meant to seize my cattle
At the behest of his tribe.
The ruler conferred with me and I said: “I do not know him; I am not his ally, (115) that I could walk about in his camp. Have I ever opened his back rooms or climbed over his fence? It is envy, because he sees me doing your commissions. I am indeed like a stray bull in a strange herd, whom the bull of the herd charges, (120) whom the longhorn attacks. Is an inferior beloved when he becomes a superior? No Asiatic makes friends with a Delta–man. And what would make papyrus cleave to the mountain? If a bull loves combat, should a champion bull retreat for fear of being equaled? (125) If he wishes to fight, let him declare his wish. Is there a god who does not know what he has ordained, and a man who knows how it will be?”
At night I strung my bow, sorted my arrows, practiced with my dagger, polished my weapons. When it dawned Retenu came. (130) It had assembled its tribes; it had gathered its neighboring peoples; it was intent on this combat.
He came toward me while I waited, having placed myself near him. Every heart burned for me; the women jabbered. All hearts ached for me thinking: “Is there another champion who could fight him?” He <raised> his battle–axe and shield, (135) while his armful of missiles fell toward me. When I had made his weapons attack me, I let his arrows pass me by without effect, one following the other. Then, when he charged me, I shot him, my arrow sticking in his neck. He screamed; he fell on his nose; (140) I slew him with his axe. I raised my war cry over his back, while every Asiatic shouted. I gave praise to Mont, while his people mourned him. The ruler Ammunenshi took me in his arms.
Then I carried off his goods; I plundered his cattle. What he had meant to do (145) to me I did to him. I took what was in his tent; I stripped his camp. Thus I became great, wealthy in goods, rich in herds. It was the god who acted, so as to show mercy to one with whom he had been angry, whom he had made stray abroad. For today his heart is appeased.
A fugitive fled (150) his surroundings —
I am famed at home.
A laggard lagged from hunger —
I give bread to my neighbor.
A man left his land in nakedness —
I have bright clothes, fine linen.
A man ran for lack of one to send —
I am (155) rich in servants.
My house is fine, my dwelling spacious —
My thoughts are at the palace!
Whichever god decreed this flight, have mercy, bring me home! Surely you will let me see the place in which my heart dwells! What is more important than that my corpse be buried in the land (160) in which I was born! Come to my aid! What if the happy event should occur!11 May god pity me! May he act so as to make happy the end of one whom he punished! May his heart ache for one whom he forced to live abroad! If he is truly appeased today, may he hearken to the prayer of one far away! May he return one whom he made roam the earth to the place from which he carried him off!
(165) May Egypt’s king have mercy on me, that I may live by his mercy! May I greet the mistress of the land who is in the palace! May I hear the commands of her children! Would that my body were young again! For old age has come; feebleness has overtaken me. My eyes are heavy, my arms weak; (170) my legs fail to follow. The heart is weary; death is near. May I be conducted to the city of eternity! May I serve the Mistress of All! May she speak well of me to her children; may she spend eternity above me!
Now when the majesty of King Kheperkare was told of the condition in which I was, his majesty sent word (175) to me with royal gifts, in order to gladden the heart of this servant like that of a foreign ruler. And the royal children who were in his palace sent me their messages. Copy of the decree brought to this servant concerning his return to Egypt:
Horus: Living in Births; the Two Ladies: Living in Births; the King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Kheperkare; the Son of Re: (180) Sesostris, who lives forever. Royal decree to the Attendant Sinuhe:
This decree of the King is brought to you to let you know: That you circled the foreign countries, going from Qedem to Retenu, land giving you to land, was the counsel of your own heart. What had you done that one should act against you? You had not cursed, so that your speech would be reproved. You had not spoken against the counsel of the nobles, that your words should have been rejected. (185) This matter — it carried away your heart. It was not in my heart against you. This your heaven in the palace lives and prospers to this day. Her head is adorned with the kingship of the land; her children are in the palace. You will store riches which they give you; you will live on their bounty. Come back to Egypt! See the residence in which you lived! Kiss the ground at the great portals, mingle with the courtiers! For today (190) you have begun to age. You have lost a man’s strength. Think of the day of burial, the passing into reveredness.
A night is made for you with ointments and wrappings from the hand of Tait. A funeral procession is made for you on the day of burial; the mummy case is of gold, its head of lapis lazuli. The sky is above you as you lie in the hearse, oxen drawing you, musicians going before you. The dance of (195) the mww-dancers is done at the door of your tomb; the offering-list is read to you; sacrifice is made before your offering-stone. Your tomb-pillars, made of white stone, are among (those of) the royal children. You shall not die abroad! Not shall Asiatics inter you. You shall not be wrapped in the skin of a ram to serve as your coffin. Too long a roaming of the earth! Think of your corpse, come back!
This decree reached me while I was standing (200) in the midst of my tribe. When it had been read to me, I threw myself on my belly. Having touched the soil, I spread it on my chest. I strode around my camp shouting: “What compares with this which is done to a servant whom his heart led astray to alien lands? Truly good is the kindness that saves me from death! Your ka will grant me to reach my end, my body being at home!”
Copy of the reply to this decree:
The servant of the Palace, Sinuhe, (205) says: In very good peace! Regarding the matter of this flight which this servant did in his ignorance. It is your ka, O good god, lord of the Two Lands, which Re loves and which Mont lord of Thebes favors and Amun lord of Thrones-of-the-Two-Lands, and Sobk-Re lord of Sumenu, and Horus, Hathor, Atum with his Ennead, and Sopdu-Neferbau-Semseru the Eastern Horus, and the Lady of Yemet — may she enfold your head — and the conclave upon the flood, and Min-Horus of the hill-countries, and Wereret lady of (210) Punt, Nut, Haroeris-Re, and all the gods of Egypt and the isles of the sea — may they give life and joy to your nostrils, may they endow you with their bounty, may they give you eternity without limit, infinity without bounds! May the fear of you resound in lowlands and highlands, for you have subdued all that the sun encircles! This is the prayer of this servant for his lord who saves from the West.
The lord of knowledge who knows people knew (215) in the majesty of the palace that this servant was afraid to say it. It is like a thing too great to repeat. The great god, the peer of Re, knows the heart of one who has served him willingly. This servant is in the hand of one who thinks about him. He is placed under his care. Your Majesty is the conquering Horus; your arms vanquish all lands. May then your Majesty command to have brought to you the prince of Meki from Qedem, (220) the mountain chiefs from Keshu, and the prince of Menus from the lands of the Fenkhu. They are rulers of renown who have grown up in the love of you. I do not mention Retenu — it belongs to you like your hounds.
Lo, this flight which the servant made — I did not plan it. It was not in my heart; I did not devise it. I do not know what removed me from my place. It was like (225) a dream. As if a Delta-man saw himself in Yebu, a marsh-man in Nubia. I was not afraid; no one ran after me. I had not heard a reproach; my name was not heard in the mouth of the herald. Yet my flesh crept, my feet hurried, my heart drove me; the god who had willed this flight (230) dragged me away. Nor am I a haughty man. He who knows his land respects men. Re has set the fear of you throughout the land, the dread of you in every foreign country. Whether I am at the residence, whether I am in this place, it is you who covers this horizon. The sun rises at your pleasure. The water in the river is drunk when you wish. The air of heaven is breathed at your bidding. This servant will hand over his possessions (235) to the brood which this servant begot in this place. This servant has been sent for! Your Majesty will do as he wishes! One lives by the breath which you give. As Re, Horus, and Hathor love your august nose, may Mont lord of Thebes wish it to live forever!
I was allowed to spend one more day in Yaa, handing over my possessions to my children, my eldest son taking charge of my tribe; (240) all my possessions became his — my serfs, my herds, my fruit, my fruit trees. This servant departed southward. I halted at Horus-ways. The commander in charge of the garrison sent a message to the residence to let it be known. Then his majesty sent a trusted overseer of the royal domains with whom were loaded ships, (245) bearing royal gifts for the Asiatics who had come with me to escort me to Horus-ways. I called each one by his name, while every butler was at his task. When I had started and set sail, there was kneading and straining beside me, until I reached the city of Itj–tawy.
When it dawned, very early, they came to summon me. Ten men came and ten men went to usher me into the palace. My forehead touched the ground between the sphinxes, (250) and the royal children stood in the gateway to meet me. The courtiers who usher through the forecourt set me on the way to the audience-hall. I found his majesty on the great throne in a kiosk of gold. Stretched out on my belly, I did not know myself before him, while this god greeted me pleasantly. I was like a man seized by darkness. (255) My ba was gone, my limbs trembled; my heart was not in my body, I did not know life from death.
His majesty said to one of the courtiers: “Lift him up, let him speak to me.” Then his majesty said: “Now you have come, after having roamed foreign lands. Flight has taken its toll of you. You have aged, have reached old age. It is no small matter that your corpse will be interred without being escorted by Bowmen. But don’t act thus, don’t act thus, speechless (260) though your name was called!” Fearful of punishment I answered with the answer of a frightened man: “What has my lord said to me, that I might answer it? It is not disrespect to the god!21 It is the terror which is in my body, like that which caused the fateful flight! Here I am before you. Life is yours. May your Majesty do as he wishes!”
Then the royal daughters were brought in, and his majesty said to the queen: “Here is Sinuhe, (265) come as an Asiatic, a product of nomads!” She uttered a very great cry, and the royal daughters shrieked all together. They said to his majesty: “Is it really he, O king, our lord?” Said his majesty: “It is really he!” Now having brought with them their necklaces, rattles, and sistra, they held them out to his majesty:
Your hands (270) upon the radiance, eternal king,
Jewels of heaven’s mistress!
The Gold gives life to your nostrils,
The Lady of Stars enfolds you!
Southcrown fared north, north crown south,
Joined, united by your majesty’s word.
While the Cobra decks your brow,
You deliver the poor from harm.
Peace to you from Re, Lord of Lands!
Hail to you and the Mistress of All!
Slacken your bow, lay down your arrow,
(275) Give breath to him who gasps for breath!
Give us our good gift on this good day,
Grant us the son of north wind, Bowman born in Egypt!
He made the flight in fear of you,
He left the land in dread of you!
A face that sees you shall not pale,
Eyes that see you shall not fear!
His majesty said: “He shall not fear, he shall not (280) dread!” “He shall be a Companion among the nobles. He shall be among the courtiers. Pro-
ceed to the robing-room to wait on him!”
I left the audience–hall, the royal daughters giving me their hands. (285) We went through the great portals, and I was put in the house of a prince. In it were luxuries: a bathroom and mirrors. In it were riches from the treasury; clothes of royal linen, myrrh, and the choice perfume of the king and of his favorite courtiers were in every (290) room. Every servant was at his task. Years were removed from my body. I was shaved; my hair was combed. Thus was my squalor returned to the foreign land, my dress to the Sand-farers. I was clothed in fine linen; I was anointed with fine oil. I slept on a bed. I had returned the sand to those who dwell in it, (295) the tree-oil to those who grease themselves with it.
I was given a house and garden that had belonged to a courtier. Many craftsmen rebuilt it, and all its woodwork was made anew. Meals were brought to me from the palace three times, four times a day, apart from what the royal children gave without a moment’s pause.
(300) A stone pyramid was built for me in the midst of the pyramids. The masons who build tombs constructed it. A master draughtsman designed in it. A master sculptor carved in it. The overseers of construction in the necropolis busied themselves with it. All the equipment that is placed in (305) a tomb–shaft was supplied. Mortuary priests were given me. A funerary domain was made for me. It had fields and a garden in the right place, as is done for a Companion of the first rank. My statue was overlaid with gold, its skirt with electrum. It was his majesty who ordered it made. There is no commoner for whom the like has been done. I was in (310) the favor of the king, until the day of landing came.
(Colophon) It is done from beginning to end as it was found in writing.
REFERENCES
Publication: Gardiner 1909; Blackman 1932:1–41; Barns 1952; Sethe 1924:3–17; 1927:5–21. Translation and commentary: Gardiner 1916; Grapow 1952. Translation: Erman 1927:14–29; Lefèbvre 1949:1–25; ANET 18–22; Edel 1968:1–12; Lichtheim AEL 1:222–235. Analysis and evaluation: Posener 1956:87–115. Comments (selection): Alt 1923:48–50; 1941:19ff; Blackman 1930:63–65; 1936:35–40; de Buck 1932:57–60; Clère 1939a:16–29; 1939b 2:829ff.; Brunner 1955:5–11; 1964:139–140; Goedicke 1957:77–85; 1965:29–47; Huffmon 1965; Yoyotte 1964:69–73; Lanczkowski 1958:214–218; Barns 1967:6–14; Westendorf 1968:125–131.
THE SHIPWRECKED SAILOR (1.39)
Miriam Lichtheim
The tale is set in a narrative frame. A high official is returning from an expedition that apparently failed in its objective, for he is despondent and fearful of the reception awaiting him at court. One of his attendants exhorts him to take courage, and as an example of how a disaster may turn into a success, tells him a marvelous adventure that happened to him years ago. At the end of his tale, however, the official is still despondent.
The only preserved papyrus copy of the tale was discovered by Golenischev in the Imperial Museum of St. Petersburg. Nothing is known about its original provenience. The papyrus, called P. Leningrad 1115, is now in Moscow. The work, and the papyrus copy, date from the Middle Kingdom.
(1) The worthy attendant said: Take heart, my lord! We have reached home. The mallet has been seized, the mooring-post staked, the prow-rope placed (5) on land. Praise is given, god is thanked, everyone embraces his fellow. Our crew has returned safely; our troops have had no loss. We have left Wawat behind, we have passed (10) Senmut; we have returned in safety, we have reached our land. Now listen to me, my lord! I am not exaggerating. Wash yourself, pour water over your fingers. You must answer (15) when questioned. You must speak to the king with presence of mind. You must answer without stammering! A man’s mouth can save him. His speech makes one forgive him. (20) But do as you like! It is tiresome to talk to you.
But I shall tell you something like it that happened to me. I had set out to the king’s mines, and had gone (25) to sea in a ship of a hundred and twenty cubits in length and forty cubits in width. One hundred and twenty sailors were in it of the pick of Egypt. Looked they at sky, looked they at land, their hearts were stouter (30) than lions. They could foretell a storm before it came, a tempest before it broke.
A storm came up while we were at sea, before we could reach land. As we sailed (35) it made a ❐swell❒, and in it a wave eight cubits tall. The mast — it (the wave) struck (it). Then the ship died. Of those in it not one remained. I was cast (40) on an island by a wave of the sea. I spent three days alone, with my heart as companion. Lying in the shelter of trees I hugged (45) the shade.
Then I stretched my legs to discover what I might put in my mouth. I found figs and grapes there, all sorts of fine vegetables, sycamore figs, unnotched and notched, (50) and cucumbers that were as if tended. Fish were there and fowl; there is nothing that was not there. I stuffed myself and put some down, because I had too much in my arms. Then I cut a fire drill, (55) made a fire and gave a burnt offering to the gods.
Then I heard a thundering noise and thought, “It is a wave of the sea.” Trees splintered, (60) the ground trembled. Uncovering my face, I found it was a snake that was coming. He was of thirty cubits; his beard was over two cubits long. His body was overlaid (65) with gold; his eyebrows were of real lapis lazuli. He was bent up in front.
Then he opened his mouth to me, while I was on my belly before him. He said to me: “Who brought you, who brought you, fellow, (70) who brought you? If you delay telling me who brought you to this island, I shall make you find yourself reduced to ashes, becoming like a thing unseen.” <I said>: “Though you speak to me, I do not hear (75) it; I am before you without knowing myself.” Then he took me in his mouth, carried me to the place where he lived, and set me down unhurt, (80) I being whole with nothing taken from me.
Then he opened his mouth to me, while I was on my belly before him. He said to me: “Who brought you, who brought you, fellow, who brought you to this island (85) of the sea, whose two sides are in water?” Then I answered him, my arms bent before him. I said to him: “I had set out (go) to the mines on a mission of the king in a ship of a hundred and twenty cubits in length and forty cubits in width. One hundred and twenty sailors were in it of the pick of Egypt. (95) Looked they at sky, looked they at land, their hearts were stouter than lions. They could foretell a storm before it came, a tempest before it struck. Each of them — his heart was stouter, (100) his arm stronger than his mate’s. There was no fool among them. A storm came up while we were at sea, before we could reach land. As we sailed it made a ❐swell❒, and in it a wave (105) eight cubits tall. The mast — it struck (it). Then the ship died. Of those in it not one remained, except myself who is here with you. I was brought to this island (110) by a wave of the sea.”
Then he said to me: “Don’t be afraid, don’t be afraid, fellow; don’t be pale-faced, now that you have come to me. It is god who has let you live and brought you to this island of the ka. (115) There is nothing that is not in it; it is full of all good things. You shall pass month upon month until you have completed four months in this island. Then (120) a ship will come from home with sailors in it whom you know. You shall go home with them, you shall die in your town.
“How happy is he who tells what he has tasted, when the calamity has passed. (125) I shall tell you something similar that happened on this island. I was here with my brothers and there were children with them. In all we were seventy-five serpents, children and brothers, without mentioning a little daughter whom I had obtained through prayer. Then a star (130) fell, and they went up in flames through it. It so happened that I was not with them in the fire, I was not among them. I could have died for their sake when I found them as one heap of corpses.”
“If you are brave and control your heart, you shall embrace your children, you shall kiss your wife, you shall see your home. It is better than everything else. (135) You shall reach home, you shall be there among your brothers.”
Stretched out on my belly I touched the ground before him; then I said to him: “I shall speak of your power to the king, I shall let him know (140) of your greatness. I shall send you ibi and ḥknw oils, laudanum, ḥsyt-spice, and the incense of the temples which pleases all the gods. I shall tell what happened to me, what I saw of your power. One will praise god for you in the city before the councillors of the whole land. I shall slaughter (145) oxen for you as burnt offering; I shall sacrifice geese to you. I shall send you ships loaded with all the treasures of Egypt, as is done for a god who befriends people in a distant land not known to the people.”
Then he laughed at me for the things I had said, which seemed foolish to him. (150) He said to me: “You are not rich in myrrh and all kinds of incense. But I am the lord of Punt, and myrrh is my very own. That ḥknw–oil you spoke of sending, it abounds on this island. Moreover, when you have left this place, you will not see this island again; it will have become water.”
Then the ship (155) came, as he had foretold. I went and placed myself on a tall tree, I recognized those that were in it. When I went to report it, I found that he knew it. He said to me: “In health, in health, fellow, to your home, that you may see your children! Make me a good name in your town; that is what I ask (160) of you.” I put myself on my belly, my arms bent before him. Then he gave me a load of myrrh, ḥknw-oil, laudanum, ḥsyt-spice, tišpss-spice, perfume, eyepaint, giraffe’s tails, great lumps of incense, (165) elephant’s tusks, greyhounds, long–tailed monkeys, baboons, and all kinds of precious things.
I loaded them on the ship. Then I put myself on my belly to thank him and he said to me: “You will reach home in two months. You will embrace your children. You will flourish at home, you will be buried.”
I went down to the shore (170) near the ship; I hailed the crew which was in the ship. I gave praise on the shore to the lord of the island, those in the ship did the same. We sailed north to the king’s residence. We reached the residence in two months, all as he had said. I went in to the king; (175) I presented to him the gifts I had brought from the island. He praised god for me in the presence of the councillors of the whole land. I was made an attendant and endowed with serfs of his.
See me after (180) I had reached land, after I saw what I had tasted! Listen to me! It is good for people to listen.
He said to me: “Don’t make an effort, my friend. Who would give water at dawn (185) to a goose that will be slaughtered in the morning?”
(Colophon) It is done from beginning to end as it was found in writing, by the scribe with skilled fingers, Imenaa, son of Imeny — life, prosperity, health!
REFERENCES
Publication: Golenischev 1912; 1916:pls. 1–8; Erman 1906:1–26; Blackman 1932:41–48. Translation: Erman 1927:29–35; Lefebvre 1949:29–40; Keimer 1928a:288 ff.; 1928b:50 ff.; Gardiner 1908:65; Brunner-Traut 1963:5–10; Lichtheim AEL 1:211–215.
THE TWO BROTHERS (1.40)
(P. D’Orbiney = P. BM 10183)
Miriam Lichtheim
This is a complex and vivid tale, rich in motifs that have parallels in later literatures. The two protagonists have some connection with a myth of the two gods, Anubis and Bata, that was told as a tradition of the Seventeenth Nome of Upper Egypt. The myth is preserved in a late form in the Papyrus Jumilhac (see Vandier 1962). More important than the mythological connection is the depiction of human characters, relationships, and feelings in a narration of sustained force. The episode of Bata and his brother’s wife has a remarkable similarity with the tale of Joseph and Potiphar’s wife, a similarity that has often been commented on. References to the recurrence in other literatures of the tale’s folkloristic motifs will be found in the works cited, especially in Lefebvre’s and Brunner–Traut’s comments to their translations.
Papyrus D’Orbiney is written in a beautiful hand by the scribe Ennana who lived at the end of the 19th Dynasty.
(1.1) It is said, there were two brothers, of the same mother and the same father. Anubis was the name of the elder, and Bata the name of the younger. As for Anubis, he had a house and a wife; and his young brother was with him as if he were a son. He was the one who made clothes for him, and he went behind his cattle to the fields. He was the one who did the plowing, and he harvested for him. He was the one who did for him all kinds of labor in the fields. Indeed, his young brother was an excellent man. There was none like him in the whole land, for a god’s strength was in him.
Now when many days had passed, his young brother [was tending] his cattle according to his daily custom. And he [returned] to his house in the evening, laden with all kinds of field plants, and with milk, with wood, and with every [good thing] of the field. He placed them before his [elder brother], as he was sitting with his wife. Then he drank and ate and [went to sleep in] his stable among his cattle.
Now when it had dawned and another day had come, [he took foods] that were cooked and placed them before his elder brother. Then he took bread for himself for the fields, and he drove his cattle to let them eat in the fields. He walked behind his cattle, and they would say to him: “The grass is good in such–and–such a place.” And he heard all they said and took them to the place of (2.1) good grass that they desired. Thus the cattle he tended became exceedingly fine, and they increased their offspring very much.
Now at plowing time his [elder] brother said to him: “Have a team [of oxen] made ready for us for plowing, for the soil has emerged and is right for plowing. Also, come to the field with seed, for we shall start plowing tomorrow.” So he said to him. Then the young brother made all the preparations that his elder brother had told him [to make].
Now when it had dawned and another day had come, they went to the field with their [seed] and began to plow. And [their hearts] were very pleased with this work they had undertaken. And many days later, when they were in the field, they had need of seed. Then he sent his young brother, saying: “Hurry, fetch us seed from the village.” His young brother found the wife of his elder brother seated braiding her hair. He said to her: “Get up, give me seed, (3.1) so that I may hurry to the field, for my elder brother is waiting for me. Don’t delay.” She said to him: “Go, open the storeroom and fetch what you want. Don’t make me leave my hairdo unfinished.”
Then the youth entered his stable and fetched a large vessel, for he wished to take a great quantity of seed. He loaded himself with barley and emmer and came out with it. Thereupon she said to him: “How much is what you have on your shoulder?” He said to her: “Three sacks of emmer and two sacks of barley, five in all, are on my shoulder.” So he said to her. Then she [spoke to] him saying: “There is [great] strength in you. I see your vigor daily.” And she desired to know him as a man. She got up, took hold of him, and said to him: “Come, let us spend an hour lying together. It will be good for you. And I will make fine clothes for you.”
Then the youth became like a leopard in [his] anger over the wicked speech she had made to him; and she became very frightened. He rebuked her, saying: “Look, you are like a mother to me; and your husband is like a father to me. He who is older than I has raised me. What (4.1) is this great wrong you said to me? Do not say it to me again! But I will not tell it to anyone. I will not let it come from my mouth to any man.” He picked up his load; he went off to the field. He reached his elder brother, and they began to work at their task. When evening had come, his elder brother returned to his house. And his young brother tended his cattle, loaded himself with all things of the field, and drove his cattle before him to let them sleep in their stable in the village.
Now the wife of his elder brother was afraid on account of the speech she had made. So she took fat and grease and made herself appear as if she had been beaten, in order to tell her husband, “It was your young brother who beat me.” Her husband returned in the evening according to his daily custom. He reached his house and found his wife lying down and seeming ill. She did not pour water over his hands in the usual manner; nor had she lit a fire for him. His house was in darkness, and she lay vomiting.
Her husband said to her: “Who has had words with you?” She said to him: “No one has had words with me except your (5.1) young brother. When he came to take seed to you, he found me sitting alone. He said to me: ‘Come, let us spend an hour lying together; loosen your braids.’ So he said to me. But I would not listen to him. ‘Am I not your mother? Is your elder brother not like a father to you?’ So I said to him. He became frightened and he beat <me>, so as to prevent me from telling you. Now if you let him live, I shall die! Look, when he returns, do [not let him live]!2 For I am ill from this evil design which he was about to carry out in the morning.”
Then his elder brother became like a leopard. He sharpened his spear and took it in his hand. Then his elder <brother> stood behind the door <of> his stable, in order to kill his young brother when he came in the evening to let his cattle enter the stable. Now when the sun had set he loaded himself with all the plants of the field according to his daily custom. He returned, and as the lead cow was about to enter the stable she said to her herdsman: “Here is your elder brother waiting for you with his spear in order to kill you. Run away from him.” He heard what his lead cow said, and (6.1) when another went in she said the same. He looked under the door of his stable and saw the feet of his elder brother as he stood behind the door with his spear in his hand. He set his load on the ground and took off at a run so as to flee. And his elder brother went after him with his spear.
Then his young brother prayed to Pre–Harakhti, saying: “My good lord! It is you who judge between the wicked and the just!” And Pre heard all his plea; and Pre made a great body of water appear between him and his elder brother, and it was full of crocodiles. Thus one came to be on the one side, and the other on the other side. And his elder brother struck his own hand twice, because he had failed to kill him. Then his young brother called to him on this side, saying: “Wait here until dawn! When the Aten has risen, I (7.1) shall contend with you before him; and he will hand over the wicked to the just! For I shall not be with you any more. I shall not be in the place in which you are. I shall go to the Valley of the Pine.”
Now when it dawned and another day had come, and Pre–Harakhti had risen, one gazed at the other. Then the youth rebuked his elder brother, saying: “What is your coming after me to kill me wrongfully, without having listened to my words? For I am yet your young brother, and you are like a father to me, and your wife is like a mother to me. Is it not so that when I was sent to fetch seed for us your wife said to me: ‘Come, let us spend an hour lying together?’ But look, it has been turned about for you into another thing.” Then he let him know all that had happened between him and his wife. And he swore by Pre–Harakhti, saying: “As to your coming to kill me wrongfully, you carried your spear on the testimony of a filthy whore!” Then he took a reed knife, cut off his phallus, and threw it into the water; and the catfish swallowed it. And he (8.1) grew weak and became feeble. And his elder brother became very sick at heart and stood weeping for him loudly. He could not cross over to where his young brother was on account of the crocodiles.
Then his young brother called to him, saying: “If you recall something evil, will you not also recall something good, or something that I have done for you? Go back to your home and tend your cattle, for I shall not stay in the place where you are. I shall go to the Valley of the Pine. But what you shall do for me is to come and look after me, when you learn that something has happened to me. I shall take out my heart and place it on top of the blossom of the pine. If the pine is cut down and falls to the ground, you shall come to search for it. If you spend seven years searching for it, let your heart not be disgusted. And when you find it and place it in a bowl of cool water, I shall live to take revenge on him who wronged me. You will know that something has happened to me when one puts a jug of beer in your hand and it ferments. Do not delay at all when this happens to you.”
Then he went away to the Valley of the Pine; and his elder brother went to his home, his hand on his head and smeared with dirt. When he reached his house, he killed his wife, cast her to the dogs,c and sat mourning for his young brother.
Now many days after this, his young brother was in the Valley of the Pine. There was no one with him, and he spent the days hunting desert game. In the evening he returned to sleep under the pine on top of whose blossom his heart was. And after (9.1) many days he built a mansion for himself with his own hand <in> the Valley of the Pine, filled with all good things, for he wanted to set up a household.
Coming out of his mansion, he encountered the Ennead as they walked about administering the entire land. Then the Ennead addressed him in unison, saying: “O Bata, Bull of the Ennead, are you alone here, having left your town on account of the wife of Anubis, your elder brother? He has killed his wife and you are avenged of all the wrong done to you.” And as they felt very sorry for him, Pre-Harakhti said to Khnum: “Fashion a wife for Bata, that he not live alone!” Then Khnum made a companion for him who was more beautiful in body than any woman in the whole land, for <the fluid of> every god was in her. Then the seven Hathors came <to> see her, and they said with one voice: “She will die by the knife.”
He desired her very much. She sat in his house while he spent the day (10.1) hunting desert game, bringing it and putting it before her. He said to her: “Do not go outdoors, lest the sea snatch you. I cannot rescue you from it, because I am a woman like you. And my heart lies on top of the blossom of the pine. But if another finds it, I shall fight with him.” Then he revealed to her all his thoughts.
Now many days after this, when Bata had gone hunting according to his daily custom, the young girl went out to stroll under the pine which was next to her house. Then she saw the sea surging behind her, and she started to run before it and entered her house. Thereupon the sea called to the pine, saying: “Catch her for me!” And the pine took away a lock of her hair. Then the sea brought it to Egypt and laid it in the place of the washermen of Pharaoh. Thereafter the scent of the lock of hair got into the clothes of Pharaoh. And the king quarreled with the royal washer-men, saying: “A scent of ointment is in the clothes of Pharaoh!” He quarreled with them every day, and (11.1) they did not know what to do.
The chief of the royal washermen went to the shore, his heart very sore on account of the daily quarrel with him. Then he realized that he was standing on the shore opposite the lock of hair which was in the water. He had someone go down, and it was brought to him. Its scent was found to be very sweet, and he took it to Pharaoh.
Then the learned scribes of Pharaoh were summoned, and they said to Pharaoh: “As for this lock of hair, it belongs to a daughter of Pre-Harakhti in whom there is the fluid of every god. It is a greeting to you from another country. Let envoys go to every foreign land to search for her. As for the envoy who goes to the Valley of the Pine, let many men go with him to fetch her.” His majesty said: “What you have said is very good.” And they were sent.
Now many days after this, the men who had gone abroad returned to report to his majesty. But those who had gone to the Valley of the Pine did not return, for Bata had killed them, leaving only one of them to report to his majesty. Then his majesty sent many soldiers and charioteers to bring her back, and (12.1) with them was a woman into whose hand one had given all kinds of beautiful ladies’ jewelry. The woman returned to Egypt with her, and there was jubilation for her in the entire land. His majesty loved her very very much, and he gave her the rank of Great Lady. He spoke with her in order to make her tell about her husband, and she said to his majesty: “Have the pine felled and cut up.” The king sent soldiers with their tools to fell the pine. They reached the pine, they felled the blossom on which was Bata’s heart, and he fell dead at that moment.
When it had dawned and the next day had come, and the pine had been felled, Anubis, the elder brother of Bata, entered his house. He sat down to wash his hands. He was given a jug of beer, and it fermented. He was given another of wine, and it turned bad. Then he took his (13.1) staff and his sandals, as well as his clothes and his weapons, and he started to journey to the Valley of the Pine. He entered the mansion of his young brother and found his young brother lying dead on his bed. He wept when he saw his young brother lying dead. He went to search for the heart of his young brother beneath the pine under which his young brother had slept in the evening. He spent three years searching for it without finding it.
When he began the fourth year, his heart longed to return to Egypt, and he said: “I shall depart tomorrow.” So he said in his heart. When it had dawned and another day had come, he went to walk under the pine and spent the day searching for it. When he turned back in the evening, he looked once again in search of it and he found a fruit. He came back with it, and it was the heart of his young brother! He fetched a bowl of cool water, placed it in it, and sat down according to his daily <custom>.
When night had come, (14.1) his heart swallowed the water, and Bata twitched in all his body. He began to look at his elder brother while his heart was in the bowl. Then Anubis, his elder brother, took the bowl of cool water in which was the heart of his young brother and <let> him drink it. Then his heart stood in its place, and he became as he had been. Thereupon they embraced each other, and they talked to one another.
Then Bata said to his elder brother: “Look, I shall change myself into a great bull of beautiful color, of a kind unknown to man, and you shall sit on my back. By the time the sun has risen, we shall be where my wife is, that I may avenge myself. You shall take me to where the king is, for he will do for you everything good. You shall be rewarded with silver and gold for taking me to Pharaoh. For I shall be a great marvel, and they will jubilate over me in the whole land. Then you shall depart to your village.”
When it had dawned (15.1) and the next day had come, Bata assumed the form which he had told his elder brother. Then Anubis, his elder brother, sat on his back. At dawn he reached the place where the king was. His majesty was informed about him; he saw him and rejoiced over him very much. He made a great offering for him, saying: “It is a great marvel.” And there was jubilation over him in the entire land. Then the king rewarded his elder brother with silver and gold, and he dwelled in his village. The king gave him many people and many things, for Pharaoh loved him very much, more than anyone else in the whole land.
Now when many days had passed, he entered the kitchen, stood where the Lady was, and began to speak to her, saying: “Look, I am yet alive!” She said to him: “Who are you?” He said to her: “I am Bata. I know that when you had the pine felled for Pharaoh, it was on account of me, so that I should not live. Look, (16.1) I am yet alive! I am a bull.” The Lady became very frightened because of the speech her husband had made to her. Then he left the kitchen.
His majesty sat down to a day of feasting with her. She poured drink for his majesty, and he was very happy with her. Then she said to his majesty: “Swear to me by God, saying: ‘Whatever she will say, I will listen to it!’ ” He listened to all that she said: “Let me eat of the liver of this bull; for he is good for nothing.” So she said to him. He became very vexed over what she had said, and the heart of Pharaoh was very sore.
When it had dawned and another day had come, the king proclaimed a great offering, namely, the sacrifice of the bull. He sent one of the chief royal slaughterers to sacrifice the bull. And when he had been sacrificed and was carried on the shoulders of the men, he shook his neck and let fall two drops of blood beside the two doorposts of his majesty, one on the one side of the great portal of Pharaoh, and the other on the other side. They grew into two (17.1) big Persea trees, each of them outstanding. Then one went to tell his majesty: “Two big Persea trees have grown this night — a great marvel for his majesty — beside the great portal of his majesty.” There was jubilation over them in the whole land, and the king made an offering to them.
Many days after this, his majesty appeared at the audience window of lapis lazuli with a wreath of all kinds of flowers on his neck. Then he <mounted> a golden chariot and came out of the palace to view the Persea trees. Then the Lady came out on a team behind Pharaoh. His majesty sat down under one Persea tree <and the Lady under the other. Then Bata> spoke to his wife: “Ha, you false one! I am Bata! I am alive ❐in spite of you❒. I know that when you had <the pine> felled for Pharaoh, it was on account of me. And when I became a bull, you had me killed.”
Many days after this, the Lady stood pouring drink for his majesty, and he was happy with her. Then she said to his majesty: “Swear to me by God, saying: ‘Whatever she will say, I will listen to it!’ So you shall say.” He listened (18.1) to all that she said. She said: “Have the two Persea trees felled and made into fine furniture.” The king listened to all that she said. After a short while his majesty sent skilled craftsmen. They felled the Persea trees of Pharaoh, and the Queen, the Lady, stood watching it. Then a splinter flew and entered the mouth of the Lady. She swallowed it, and in a moment she became pregnant. The king <ordered> made of them whatever she desired.
Many days after this, she gave birth to a son. One went to tell his majesty: “A son has been born to you.” He was fetched, and a nurse and maids were assigned to him. And there was jubilation over him in the whole land. The king sat down to a feast day and held him on his lap. From that hour his majesty loved him very much, and he designated him as (19.1) Viceroy of Kush. And many days after this, his majesty made him crown prince of the whole land.
Now many days after this, when he had spent [many years] as crown prince of the whole land, his majesty flew up to heaven. Then the king10 said: “Let my great royal officials be brought to me, that I may let them know all that has happened to me.” Then his wife was brought to him. He judged her in their presence, and they gave their assent. His elder brother was brought to him, and he made him crown prince of the whole land. He <spent> thirty years as king of Egypt. He departed from life; and his elder brother stood in his place on the day of death.
(Colophon) It has come to a good end under the scribe of the treasury, Kagab, and the scribes of the treasury, Hori and Meremope. Written by the scribe Ennana, the owner of this book. Whoever maligns this book, Thoth will contend with him.
REFERENCES
Publication: SPHC pls. 9–19; Möller 1927 1:1–20; Gardiner 1932b:9–29; Translation: Lefèbvre 1949:137–158; Schott 1950:193–204; Brunner-Traut 1963:28–40; Wente 1973:92–107. Comments: Yoyotte 1952:157–159; Vandier 1962:45–46, 105–106, 114–115; Jesi 1962:276–296; Blumenthal 1973:1–17; von Deines and Westendorf 1961–62 2:194; Lichtheim AEL 2:203–211.
THE REPORT OF WENAMUN (1.41)
(P. Moscow 120)
Miriam Lichtheim
In its present state the papyrus consists of two pages with a total of 142 lines. The first page has numerous lacunae, and the end of the story is missing. The papyrus was written at the end of the 20th Dynasty, that is to say, directly after the events which the report relates. Whether or not the report reflects an actual mission, it depicts a true historical situation and a precise moment. It is the third decade of the reign of Ramses XI (1090–1080 BCE), during which the king yielded power to the two men who shared the effective rule of Egypt: Herihor in the south and Smendes in the north. The empire had been lost, and thus so simple an enterprise as the purchase of Lebanese timber could be depicted as a perilous adventure.
What makes the story so remarkable is the skill with which it is told. The Late–Egyptian vernacular is handled with great subtlety. The verbal duels between Wenamum and the prince of Byblos, with their changes of mood and shades of meaning that include irony, represent Egyptian thought and style at their most advanced. What Sinuhe is for the Middle Kingdom, Wenamun is for the New Kingdom: a literary culmination. The differences between them are not only that the one reflects political power and the other political decline, but more importantly that almost a millennium of human history has gone by, a time during which the peoples of the ancient world lost much of their archaic simplicity. Wenamun stands on the threshold of the first millennium BCE, a millennium in which the modern world began, a world shaped by men and women who were the likes of ourselves.
(1.1) Year 5, fourth month of summer, day 16, the day of departure of Wenamun, the Elder of the Portal of the Temple of Amun, Lord of Thrones-of-the-Two-Lands, to fetch timber for the great noble bark of Amun–Re, King of Gods, which is upon the river and [is called] Amun-user-he.2
On the day of my arrival at Tanis, the place where Smendes and Tentamun are, I gave them the dispatches of Amun–Re, King of Gods. They had them read out before them and they said: “I will do, I will do as Amun–Re, King of Gods, our lord has said.”
I stayed until the fourth month of summer in Tanis. Then Smendes and Tentamun sent me off with the ship’s captain Mengebet, and I went down upon the great sea of Syria in the first month of summer,5 day 1. I arrived at Dor, a Tjeker town; and Beder, its prince, had fifty loaves, one jug of wine, (1.10) and one ox–haunch brought to me. Then a man of my ship fled after stealing one vessel of gold worth 5 deben, four jars of silver worth 20 deben, and a bag with 11 deben of silver; [total of what he stole]: gold 5 deben, silver 31 deben.
That morning, when I had risen, I went to where the prince was and said to him: “I have been robbed in your harbor. Now you are the prince of this land, you are the one who controls it. Search for my money! Indeed the money belongs to Amun–Re, King of Gods, the lord of the lands. It belongs to Smendes; it belongs to Herihor, my lord, and (to) the other magnates of Egypt. It belongs to you; it belongs to Weret; it belongs to Mekmer; it belongs to Tiekerbaal, the prince of Byblos!” He said to me: “Are you serious? ❐Are you joking?❒ Indeed I do not understand the demand you make to me. If it had been a thief belonging to my land who had gone down to your ship and stolen your money, I would replace it for you from my storehouse, until (1.20) your thief, whatever his name, had been found. But the thief who robbed you, he is yours, he belongs to your ship. Spend a few days here with me; I will search for him.”
I stayed nine days moored in his harbor. Then I went to him and said to him: “Look, you have not found my money. [Let me depart] with the ship captains, with those who go to sea.”
[The next eight lines are broken. Apparently the prince advises Wenamun to wait some more, but Wenamun departs. He passes Tyre and approaches Byblos. Then he seizes thirty deben of silver from a ship he has encountered which belongs to the Tjeker. He tells the owners that he will keep the money until his money has been found. Through this action he incurs the enmity of the Tjeker].
They departed and I celebrated [in] a tent on the shore of the sea in the harbor of Byblos. And [I made a hiding place for] Amun–of–the-Road and placed his possessions in it. Then the prince of Byblos sent to me saying: “[Leave my] harbor!” I sent to him, saying: “Where shall [I go]? ––––––. If [you have a ship to carry me], let me be taken back to Egypt.” I spent twenty–nine days in his harbor, and he spent time sending to me daily to say: “Leave my harbor!”
Now while he was offering to his gods, the god took hold of a young man [of] his young men and put him in a trance. He said to him: “Bring [the] god up! Bring the envoy who is carrying him! (1.40) It is Amun who sent him. It is he who made him come!” Now it was while the entranced one was entranced that night that I had found a ship headed for Egypt. I had loaded all my belongings into it and was watching for the darkness, saying: “When it descends I will load the god so that no other eye shall see him.”
Then the harbor master came to me, saying: “Wait until morning, says the prince!” I said to him: “Was it not you who daily took time to come to me, saying: ‘Leave my harbor’? Do you now say: ‘Wait this night,’ in order to let the ship that I found depart, and then you will come to say: ‘Go away’?” He went and told it to the prince. Then the prince sent to the captain of the ship, saying: “Wait until morning, says the prince.”
When morning came, he sent and brought me up, while the god rested in the tent where he was on the shore of the sea. I found him seated in his upper chamber with his back against a window, and the waves of the great sea of Syria broke behind (1.50) his head. I said to him: “Blessings of Amun!” He said to me: “How long is it to this day since you came from the place where Amun is?” I said to him: “Five whole months till now.” He said to me: “If you are right, where is the dispatch of Amun that was in your hand? Where is the letter of the High Priest of Amun that was in your hand?” I said to him: “I gave them to Smendes and Tentamun.” Then he became very angry and said to me: “Now then, dispatches, letters you have none. Where is the ship of pinewood that Smendes gave you? Where is its Syrian crew? Did he not entrust you to this foreign ship’s captain in order to have him kill you and have them throw you into the sea? From whom would one then seek the god? And you, from whom would one seek you?” So he said to me.
I said to him: “Is it not an Egyptian ship? Those who sail under Smendes are Egyptian crews. He has no Syrian crews.” He said to me: “Are there not twenty ships here in my harbor that do business with Smendes? As for Sidon, (2.1) that other (place) you passed, are there not another fifty ships there that do business with Werekter and haul to his house?”
I was silent in this great moment. Then he spoke to me, saying: “On what business have you come?” I said to him: “I have come in quest of timber for the great noble bark of Amun–Re, King of Gods. What your father did, what the father of your father did, you too will do it.” So I said to him. He said to me: “True, they did it. If you pay me for doing it, I will do it. My relations carried out this business after Pharaoh had sent six ships laden with the goods of Egypt, and they had been unloaded into their storehouses. You, what have you brought for me?”
He had the daybook of his forefathers brought and had it read before me. They found entered in his book a thousand deben of silver and all sorts of things. (2.10) He said to me: “If the ruler of Egypt were the lord of what is mine and I were his servant, he would not have sent silver and gold to say: ‘Carry out the business of Amun.’ It was not a royal gift that they gave to my father! I too, I am not your servant, nor am I the servant of him who sent you! If I shout aloud to the Lebanon, the sky opens and the logs lie here on the shore of the sea! Give me the sails you brought to move your ships, loaded with logs for <Egypt>! Give me the ropes you brought [to lash the pines] that I am to fell in order to make them for you –––. –––––– that I am to make for you for the sails of your ships; or the yards may be too heavy and may break, and you may die <in> the midst of the sea. For Amun makes thunder in the sky ever since he placed Seth beside him! Indeed, Amun has (2.20) founded all the lands. He founded them after having first founded the land of Egypt from which you have come. Thus craftsmanship came from it in order to reach the place where I am! Thus learning came from it in order to reach the place where I am! What are these foolish travels they made you do?”
I said to him: “Wrong! These are not foolish travels that I am doing. There is no ship on the river that does not belong to Amun. His is the sea and his the Lebanon of which you say, ‘It is mine.’ It is a growing ground for Amun–user–he, the lord of every ship. Truly, it was Amun–Re, King of Gods, who said to Herihor, my master: ‘Send me!’ And he made me come with this great god. But look, you have let this great god spend these twenty-nine days moored in your harbor. Did you not know that he was here? Is he not he who he was? You are prepared to haggle over the Lebanon with Amun, its lord? As to your saying, the former kings sent silver and gold: If they had owned life and health, they would not have sent these things. (2.30) It was in place of life and health that they sent these things to your fathers! But Amun–Re, King of Gods, he is the lord of life and health, and he was the lord of your fathers! They passed their lifetimes offering to Amun. You too, you are the servant of Amun!
If you will say ‘I will do’ to Amun, and will carry out business, you will live, you will prosper, you will be healthy; you will be beneficent to your whole land and your people. Do not desire what belongs to Amun–Re, King of Gods! Indeed, a lion loves his possessions! Have your scribe brought to me that I may send him to Smendes and Tentamun, the pillars Amun has set up for the north of his land; and they will send all that is needed. I will send him to them, saying: ‘Have it brought until I return to the south; then I shall refund you all your expenses.’ ” So I said to him.
He placed my letter in the hand of his messenger; and he loaded the keel, the prow–piece, and the stern–piece, together with four other hewn logs, seven in all, and sent them to Egypt. His messenger who had gone to Egypt returned to me in Syria in the first month of winter, Smendes and Tentamun having sent: (2.40) four jars and one kakmen-vessel of gold; five jars of silver; ten garments of royal linen; ten ḫrd–garments of fine linen; five hundred smooth linen mats; five hundred ox–hides; five hundred ropes; twenty sacks of lentils; and thirty baskets of fish. And she had sent to me:16 five garments of fine linen; five ḫrd–garments of fine linen; one sack of lentils; and five baskets of fish.
The prince rejoiced. He assigned three hundred men and three hundred oxen, and he set supervisors over them to have them fell the timbers. They were felled and they lay there during the winter. In the third month of summer they dragged them to the shore of the sea. The prince came out and stood by them, and he sent to me, saying: “Come!” Now when I had been brought into his presence, the shadow of his sunshade fell on me. Then Penamun, a butler of his, intervened, saying: “The shadow of Pharaoh, your lord, has fallen upon you.” And he was angry with him and said: “Leave him alone.”
As I stood before him, he addressed me, saying: “Look, the business my fathers did in the past, I have done it, although you did not do for me what your fathers did for mine. Look, the last of your timber has arrived and is ready. Do as I wish, and come to load it. For has it not been given to you? (2.50) Do not come to look at the terror of the sea. For if you look at the terror of the sea, you will see my own! Indeed, I have not done to you what was done to the envoys of Khaemwese, after they had spent seventeen years in this land. They died on the spot.” And he said to his butler: “Take him to see the tomb where they lie.”
I said to him: “Do not make me see it. As for Khaemwese, the envoys he sent you were men and he himself was a man. You have not here one of his envoys, though you say: ‘Go and see your companions.’ Should you not rejoice and have a stela [made] for yourself, and say on it: ‘Amun–Re, King of Gods, sent me Amun–of–the-Road, his envoy, together with Wenamun, his human envoy, in quest of timber for the great noble bark of Amun–Re, King of Gods. I felled it; I loaded it; I supplied my ships and my crews. I let them reach Egypt so as to beg for me from Amun fifty years of life over and above my allotted fate.’ And if it comes to pass that in another day an envoy comes from the land of Egypt who knows writing and he reads out your name on the stela, you will receive water of the west like the gods who are (2.60) there.”
He said to me: “A great speech of admonition is what you have said to me.” I said to him: “As to the many <things> you have said to me: if I reach the place where the High Priest of Amun is and he sees your accomplishment, it is your accomplishment that will draw profit to you.”
I went off to the shore of the sea, to where the logs were lying. And I saw eleven ships that had come in from the sea and belonged to the Tjeker (who were) saying: “Arrest him! Let no ship of his leave for the land of Egypt!” Then I sat down and wept. And the secretary of the prince came out to me and said to me: “What is it?” I said to him: “Do you not see the migrant birds going down to Egypt a second time? Look at them traveling to the cool water! Until when shall I be left here? For do you not see those who have come to arrest me?”
He went and told it to the prince. And the prince began to weep on account of the words said to him, for they were painful. He sent his secretary out to me, bringing me two jugs of wine and a sheep. And he sent me Tentne, an Egyptian songstress who was with him, saying: “Sing for him! Do not let his heart be anxious.” And he sent to me, (2.70) saying: “Eat, drink; do not let your heart be anxious. You shall hear what I will say tomorrow.”
When morning came, he had his assembly summoned. He stood in their midst and said to the Tjeker: “What have you come for?” They said to him: “We have come after the blasted ships that you are sending to Egypt with our enemy.” He said to them: “I cannot arrest the envoy of Amun in my country. Let me send him off, and you go after him to arrest him.”
He had me board and sent me off from the harbor of the sea. And the wind drove me to the land of Alašiya. Then the town’s people came out against me to kill me. But I forced my way through them to where Hatiba, the princess of the town was. I met her coming from one of her houses to enter another. I saluted her and said to the people who stood around her: “Is there not one among you who understands Egyptian?” And one among them said: “I understand it.” I said to him: “Tell my lady that I have heard it said as far away as Thebes, the place where Amun is: ‘If wrong is done in every town, in the land of Alašiya right is done.’ Now is wrong done here too every day?”
She said: “What is it (2.80) you have said?” I said to her: “If the sea rages and the wind drives me to the land where you are, will you let me be received so as to kill me, though I am the envoy of Amun? Look, as for me, they would search for me till the end of time. As for this crew of the prince of Byblos, whom they seek to kill, will not their lord find ten crews of yours and kill them also?” She had the people summoned and they were reprimanded. She said to me: “Spend the night ______
REFERENCES
Publication: Golenishchev 1899:74–102; Gardiner 1932b:61–76; Korostovtsev 1960. Translation: Erman 1900:1–14; 1927:174–185; Lefebvre 1949:204–220; ANET 25–29; Gardiner 1961:306–313; Edel 1968:41–48; Wente 1973:142–155; Lichtheim AEL 2:224–230. Comments: Nims 1968:161–164.
2. “PROPHECY”
THE ADMONITIONS OF AN EGYPTIAN SAGE: THE ADMONITIONS OF IPUWER (1.42)
Nili Shupak
The “Admonitions” was composed during the First Intermediate period (c.a. 2000 BCE) or the late Middle Kingdom. The text is preserved on Papyrus Leiden 344, dating to the 18th or 19th Dynasty (1580–1200 BCE).
The original composition contained a narrative frame which has been lost, and which established the setting of the utterances of the sage as a council at the royal court, in a manner similar to that of the “Prophecies of Neferti” (text 1.45 below).
The speeches of the sage are arranged in six poems, each of which opens with an identical formula, although the poems are not continuous with regard to content.
A considerable portion of this work is concerned with an account of ordeals and calamities of the times. The second part of the composition consists of exhortations to the people to repent by destroying the enemy and fulfilling their religious obligations. The climax of the work is in the third part, which portrays an ideal monarch who will rehabilitate the country, and concludes by pinning the blame for the decline into evil days on an unnamed regnant king4 and presenting the fortunate conditions in store for Egypt once the nation is redeemed.
The composition closes with an obscure passage which speaks of an aged monarch, and may allude to actual historical circumstances.
The work, which is clearly a document of social criticism and contains some sections referring to events in the future, has common features with the biblical prophecy.6 Note: l.p.h. = “life, prosperity, health!” — the traditional blessing over the king.
Calamities of the Times (1.1–10.6)
Introduction (1.1–1.9)
(1.1) The doorkeepers say: “Let us go and plunder” …,
The washerman refuses to carry his load […],
The bird [-catchers] have drawn up in line of battle,
[The inhabitants] of the Delta marshes carry shields …,
A man looks upon his son as his enemy …,
(1.8) The virtuous man goes in mourning because of what has happened in the land …
(1.9) Foreigners have become Egyptians8 everywhere.
First Poem (Introduction Formula — iw ms) (1.9–6.14)
(1.9) Indeed, the face is pale,
(1.10) What the ancestors foretold has happened […].
Indeed […] the land is full of gangs,
A man goes to plough with his shield …
Indeed, the Nile overflows, none plough for it;
Everyone says: “We do not know what has happened throughout the land.”
(2.4) Indeed, women are barren, and none conceive,
Khnum does not create because of the condition of the land,
(2.4–2.5) Indeed, poor men have become owners of wealth,
He who could not make for himself sandals owns riches.
(2.6–7) Indeed, many dead are buried in the river,
The stream is a grave, and the tomb has become a stream.
(2.7–2.8) Indeed, the noblemen are in mourning and the poor man is full of joy,
Every town says: “Let us expel the powerful among us.”
Indeed, men are like ibises; dirt is throughout the land,
There is none indeed whose clothes are white at this time.
Indeed, the land turns around like a potter’s wheel,
The robber is a possessor of riches and [the rich man has become (?)] a plunderer …
(2.10) Indeed, the river is blood, yet one drinks from it,
Men shrink from people and thirst after water.
Indeed, gates, columns and walls are burning,
While the hall of the palace l.p.h. stands firm and endures …
(2.12–2.13) Indeed, crocodiles are glutted on their catch,
People go to them of their own will …
(2.14) Indeed, the well born man … passes without being recognized,
The child of his lady has become the son of his maid.
(3.1) Indeed, the desert is throughout the land,
The nomes are laid waste,
Foreign tribes come into Egypt …
(3.6) Indeed, the builders [of pyramids have become] farmers of fields,
Those who were in the sacred bark are yoked [to it].
None, indeed, sail northward to (3.7) Byblos today,
What shall we do for cedar trees for our mummies?
The priests are buried with their produce,
The [chiefs] are embalmed with their oil,
As far as (3.9) Crete, they come no more,
Gold is lacking …
(3.10–3.13) Indeed, Elephantine and Thines (?) [the dominion of] Upper Egypt are not taxed because of civil war.
Lacking are grain, charcoal …
To what purpose is a treasure-house without its revenues?
Glad indeed is the heart of the king, when gifts come to him.
Look, every foreign country [says?]: “This is our water! This is our fortune!”
What shall we do about it? All is ruin!
Indeed, merriment has perished, is [no longer] made,
There is groaning throughout the land mingled with laments …
(4.2–4.3) Indeed, great and small [say] “I wish I were dead,”
Little children say “He should not have caused [me] to live.” b
Indeed, the children of princes are dashed against walls,
And the infants are laid on the high ground.
Indeed, those who were in the place of embalming are laid on high ground,
And the secrets of the embalmers are thrown away …
(4.5) Indeed, the whole Delta will no longer be hidden,
Lower Egypt will trust trodden roads.
What shall one do?…
Behold, it is in the hands of those who do not know it, like those who know it,
The foreigners are skilled in the crafts of the Delta …
Indeed, all maid servants are rude in their tongue,
When their mistress speaks it is irksome to the servants …
(5.2–5.3) Indeed, princes are hungry and perish,
Servants are served …
Indeed, the hot-tempered man says: “If I knew where god is, then I would serve him.”
Indeed, [justice] is throughout (5.4) the land in its name,
but what they (men) do in appealing to it, is wrong …
Indeed, all animals, their hearts weep,
Cattle moan because of the state of the land.
Indeed, the children of princes are dashed against walls,
The infants are laid on the high ground,
(5.7) Khnum groans in weariness …
(5.9–5.11) Indeed, a slave (?) [has the power?] throughout the land,
The strong man sends to all people.
A man strikes his maternal brother —
What has been done?
Indeed, the ways are (blocked), the roads are watched,
Men sit in the bushes, until the night traveller comes, in order to plunder his load.
What is upon him is taken away;
He is thrashed with blows of a stick and criminally slain.
Indeed, perished is what yesterday was seen …
If only this were the end of men,
No conceiving, no birth,
Then the land would be quiet of noise, and tumult be no more.
Indeed [men eat] herbs and wash (them) down with water,
No seeds nor herbs are found for the birds …
(6.5–6.6) Indeed, the writings of the private council-chamber are taken away,
Laid bare are the secrets which were in it …
(6.7–6.8) Indeed, (public) offices are opened and their records are taken,
The serf becomes lord of serfs. (?)
Indeed, [scribes?] are killed and their writings stolen,
Woe is me because of the misery of this time!
Indeed, the scribes of the land-register — their writings are destroyed,
The grain of Egypt is common property.
Indeed, the laws of the council-chamber are thrown out,
Men walk on them in public places,
Beggars break them up in the streets.
Indeed, the beggar has attained the state of the Nine Gods,
The instructions of the House of the Thirty are divulged.
(6.12) Indeed, the great council chamber is a public resort,
Beggars come and go in the Great Houses.
Indeed, the children of princes are cast out in the streets,
The wise man says: “Yes”, the fool says: “No”
And it is pleasing to him who knows nothing about it.
Second Poem (Introduction Formula — mṯn, mṯn is) (7.1–9.7)
(7.1) Behold, the fire has risen high,
Its burning goes forth against the enemies of the land.
Behold, things have been done that have not happened for a long time,
The King has been disposed of by beggars.
Behold, he who was buried like a falcon … has no bier,
What the pyramid concealed has become empty.
Behold, it has befallen that the land is deprived of kingship by a few people who ignore the custom,
Behold, men have fallen into rebellion against the Uraeus.
The […] of Re, who pacifies the Two Lands,
(7.4) Behold, the secrets of the land, whose limits are unknown, are divulged,
The Residence is thrown down in a minute …
(7.5) Behold, the Ḳrḥt serpent is taken from his hole,
The secrets of Egypt’s kings are bared …
(7.8) Behold, the possessors of tombs are cast on high ground,
He who could not make a grave is [possessor] of a treasury.
Behold, the change among the people:
He who could not build a room for himself is (now) a possessor of walls …
Behold, noble ladies are on rafts,
Magnates are in the workhouse;
He who could not even sleep on a wall is (now) possessor of a bed …
(7.11–7.12) Behold, the possessors of robes are (now) in rags,
He who never wove for himself is (now) the possessor of fine linen.
Behold, he who never built for himself a boat is (now) the possessor of ships,
He who possessed the same looks at them, (but) they are not his …
(8.1) Behold, he who had no property is (now) a possessor of wealth,
The magnate sings his praise.
Behold, the poor of the land have become rich,
The possessor of property has become one who has nothing …
Behold, he whose hair had fallen out and lacked oil,
Has become a possessor of jars of sweet myrrh.
(8.5) Behold, she who had no box is a possessor of a coffer,
She who looked at her face in the water is possessor of a mirror.
Behold, a man is happy when he eats his food,
Consume your goods in gladness,
Without being hindered by anybody;
It is good for a man to eat his food,
God commands it for him whom he favours …
(9.2) Behold, all the offices, they are not in their (right) place,
Like a herd running at random without its herdsman,
Behold, cattle stray and there is none to collect them …
(9.3) Behold, a man is slain beside his brother …
(9.5) Behold, he who had no dependents (?) is (now) a lord of serfs,
He who was a [magnate] does commission himself …
Third Poem (Introduction Formula — ḥḏ) (9.8–10.6)
(9.8) Destroyed is […] in that time …
Destroyed is […]
Their food [is taken?] from them …
(10.3) Lower Egypt weeps,
The storehouse of the king is the common property of everyone;
The entire palace l.p.h. is without its revenues:
To it belong wheat and barley, fowl and fish
To it belong white cloth and fine linen, copper and oil …
Exhortations (10.6–11.11)
Fourth Poem (Introduction Formula: ḥḏ) (10.6–10.12)
Destroy the enemies of the noble Residence,
Splendid of magistrates …
(10.7) Destroy the enemies of the noble Residence …
(10.8) [Destroy the enemies] of the formerly noble Residence,
Manifold of laws …
Fifth Poem (Introduction Formula: sḫʾ) (10.12–11.10)
Remember to immerse […]
Him who is in pain when (?) he is sick in his body …
Remember to … to fumigate with incense,
To offer water in a jar in the early morning.
(11.1–11.2) Remember [to bring] the fatted r geese, trp geese and st geese,
To offer offerings to the gods.
Remember to chew natron and to prepare white bread,
A man (should do it) on the day of wetting the head.
(11.3–11.4) Remember to erect flagstaffs and to carve stelae,
The priest cleansing the shrines,
The temple being plastered (white) like milk.
Remember to make pleasant the perfume of the sanctuary,
To set up the bread-offerings.
Remember to observe regulations, to adjust dates,
To remove him who enters the priestly office with impure body, for to do so is wrong …
(11.6) Remember to slaughter oxen …
Remember to come forth pure …
Redemption (11.11–13.9)
Criticism of the Sun-God and the Description of the Ideal Monarch (11.11–12.11)
(11.11) Lack of people … Re who commands […] worshipping him …
Behold, why does he see (11.13) to fashion (men)?
The timid man is not distinguished from the violent one.
He has brought coolness upon the heat,
(12.1) Men say: “He is the herdsman of all, and there is no evil in his heart.”
His herds are few (but) he spends a day collecting them, c
(12.2) (Because) fire is in their heart.
Would that he had perceived their nature in the first generation,
Then he would have smitten the evil,
He would have stretched out his arm against it,
He would have destroyed (12.3) their seed and their heirs,
While the people still desired to give birth.
Sadness overwhelms, misery is everywhere …
(12.4) Combat has gone forth,
(12.5) The redresser of evil is one who commits it.
There is no pilot in their hour,
Where is he today?
Is he asleep? Behold (12.6), his power is not seen …
Criticism of the King (12.11–13.9)
Authority, Knowledge and Truth are with you,
Yet confusion is what you set throughout the land,
And the noise of tumult.
Behold, one fights against another,
For men obey what you have commanded.
If three men travel (12.14) on the road,
They are found to be only two,
For the many kill the few.
Does a herdsman desire death?
Then may you command it done …
It is your doing that brought those things to pass,
You have told lies.
The land is weed which destroys men,
None is named among the living.
All these years are strife,
A man is murdered on his roof top …
(13.5) O that you could taste something of the misery of it,
Then you would say …
The Happy Days (Contrasted with the Contemporary Adversities) (13.9–16.1)
Sixth Poem (Introduction Formula: iw ir.f ḥmw nfr)
[It is indeed good] when ships sail upstream …
(13.10) It is indeed good when […]
[It is indeed] good when the net is drawn,
And birds are tied up […] …
It is indeed good when the hands of men build pyramids,
(13.13) Ponds are dug and orchards made for the gods.
It is indeed good when people are drunk,
When they drink myt and their hearts are glad …
It is indeed good when shouting is in (men’s) mouths …
(14.1) It is indeed good, when beds are made ready,
The head-rests of magistrates are safely secured …
The door is shut upon him who slept in the bushes,
(14.10) […] [in their midst] like Asiatics …
None are found who would stand up to protect them …
Every man fights for his sister and to save his own skin.
(14.11) Is it the Nubians? Then we will protect ourselves!
Warriors are made many in order to repel foreigners;
Is it the Libyans? Then we will turn them back!
The Medjai are pleased with Egypt.
How does it come that every man kills his brother?
The troops (15.1) we raised for ourselves have become foreigners and taken to ravaging,
What has come to pass has caused the Asiatics to know the state of the land …
(15.13) What Ipuwer said when he answered the majesty of the All-Lord:
[…] all herds …
You have done what pleases their heart,
You have nourished the people among them,
Yet, they cover (16.1) their faces in fear of tomorrow.
Obscure Proverb (16.1–17.2)
(16.1) There was an old man who was about to die,
While his son was a child without knowledge;
He has not yet opened his mouth to speak to you,
When you seize and kill him (?)
REFERENCES
Barta 1974:19–33; Faulkner 1964:24–36; Fecht 1972; Gardiner 1909; Goedicke 1967:93–95; Hornung 1990:83–100, 190–191; Lichtheim AEL 1:149–163; Otto 1951; Shupak 1989–90:1–40; 1993; Van Seters 1964:13–23; Westendorf 1973:41–44; ANET 441–444.
THE ELOQUENT PEASANT (1.43)
Nili Shupak
This work was composed during the Middle Kingdom (in the 12th or 13th Dynasty) and has been preserved on four papyri of that time. Three of these, known as B1 and B2 and R, are now in Berlin, and the fourth, Pap. Butler, is in London.
The composition, which pertains to the class of speculative wisdom literature, contains a narrative frame and text set out in verse form. This structure is common to works composed during that period, such as “The Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage,” “The Prophecies of Neferti,” “The Dispute between a Man and his Ba.” The frame narrates the circumstances that gave rise to the peasant’s complaint, i.e., his having been robbed of his property. The body of work consists of nine complaints that the peasant addresses to the high steward Rensi, son of Meru. These are spoken in an eloquent rhetorical style in which images and proverbs are employed, as well as word plays and assonances.
The grievances that the peasant puts to the judge contain no more than allusions to his private misery and are primarily concerned with the broad issue of doing justice. This is, therefore, essentially a moral document which is at once an earnest appeal for the preservation of social order and justice (mʾʿt) and a condemnation of the corruption of the times.
Frame-Story: Introduction (R1–41)
There was a man Khu-n-Anup was his name. A peasant of Salt-Field was he. He had a wife. [M]ryt was her name.
This peasant said to his wife: “Behold, I am going down to Egypt to bring provisions from there for my children. Go and measure for me the barley (4) which is in the storehouse, the (barley) remaining from [yesterday].” Then he measured [twenty]-six gallons of barley. Then this peasant said to his wife: “Behold, (I give) you twenty gallons of grain for provisions for you and your children and you will make for me six gallons into bread and beer for every day (on which) [I will live].”4
(7) This peasant went down to Egypt after he had loaded his donkeys with vines, rushes, natron, salt, wood … panther skins, wolf hides … (35) full (measure) of all the good products of Salt-Field.
This peasant went south toward Heracleopolis and he reached the region of Per-fefi north of Medenit.6
He met a man there standing on the river bank, Nemty-nakht was his name. He was son of a man whose name was Isri and he was a subordinate of the high steward, Rensi, son of Meru.
Frame-Story (cont.): The Robbery (R 42–60; B1 1–30)
Then this Nemty-nakht said, when he saw this peasant’s donkeys which were tempting to his heart, “Would that I had some effective idol that I might steal the goods of this peasant with it!” Now the house of Nemty-nakht was at the beginning of a path8 which was narrow, not so wide as to exceed the width of a loin-cloth. One side of it was under water; the other side of it was under barley. And then this Nemty-nakht said to his servant “Go and bring me a cloth from my house.” It was brought to him immediately. Then he spread it out on the beginning of the path so that its fringe was on the water and its hem on the barley.
This peasant came along the public road. Then this Nemty-nakht said, “Be careful peasant. (2) Will you tread on my clothes?” And then this peasant said “I shall do as you wish, my way is good.”
So he went upwards. And then this Nemty-nakht said, “Will my barley be your path?” Then this peasant said “My way is good. The bank is high. The (only) way is under barley, for you are blocking our path with your clothes. Will you then not let us pass by on the road?”
(R 59) He had just reached saying (this) word (B1 9) when one of these donkeys filled his mouth with a wisp of barley. Then this Nemty-nakht said: “Behold, I will take away your donkey, peasant, for eating my barley. Behold, it will tread out (grain) because of its offense (13).”
And then this peasant said “My course is good. (Only) one (wisp) has been damaged. Could I buy back my donkey for its (the wisp’s) value if you seize it for filling its mouth with a wisp of barley? (15–16). But I know the lord of this district, it belongs to the high steward Rensi, son of Meru. He indeed is one who punishes every robber in this land. Shall I be robbed in his district?”
(19) This Nemty-nakht said: “Is this the proverb which men say: ‘The name of a poor man is pronounced for his master’s sake?’ I am the one who is speaking to you, yet the high steward it is whom you have invoked!” Then he took a stick of green tamarisk and thrashed all his limbs with it, and his donkeys (24) were seized and driven into the district.
Then this peasant wept very greatly because of the pain of what had been done to him. And then this Nemty-nakht said “Do not raise your voice peasant! Behold you are in the city of the Lord of Silence.”
Then this peasant said: “You beat me, you steal my goods and now you take away the complaint of my mouth! O Lord of Silence may you give me back my property! Then I shall stop screaming which you fear.”
Frame-Story (cont.): The Peasant Appealed to Rensi Son of Meru (B1 31–51)
Then this peasant spent a period of ten days appealing to Nemty-nakht who did not pay attention to it (32). So this peasant went to Herakleopolis to appeal to the high steward, Rensi, son of Meru. He met him going out of the door of his house to his court17 boat. And then this peasant said, “Would that I might be permitted to inform you concerning this complaint. It is a case of letting your favourite servant come to me so that I might send him back to you about it.”
And then the high steward Rensi, son of Meru, allowed his favorite servant to go in front of him and this peasant sent him concerning his case in its entirety.
Then the high steward Rensi, son of Meru accused this Nemty-nakht before the magistrates20 who were at his side. And then they said to him “Probably it is a peasant of his who has gone to someone else beside him. Behold, that is what they do to a peasant of theirs who goes to (46) others beside them. Is it a case of one punishing this Nemty-nakht for a little natron and a little salt? Let him be ordered to give compensation for it, and he will give compensation.”
Then the high steward Rensi, son of Meru, was silent; he did not reply to these magistrates; he did not reply to the peasant.
First Petition (B1 52–71)
Then this peasant came to appeal to the high steward Rensi, son of Meru; he said:
“High steward, my lord,
Greatest of the great, leader of all that is and all that is not!
If you embark on a lake of justice
May you sail on it with fair breeze,
Let not the fastener of your sail unravel!
Your boat shall not lag,
No misfortune shall take your mast,
Your yards will not break (59) …
You will not taste the river’s evils,
You will not see the face of fear.
(62) For you are father to the orphan,
Husband to the widow,
Brother to the rejected woman,
Apron to the motherless. a
Let me make your name in this land according to every good law:
Leader free from covetousness,
A great man free from baseness,
(67) Destroyer of falsehood,
Creator of justice,
Who comes at (68) the voice of the caller, b
When I speak may you hear!
Do justice you praised one,
Whom the praised ones praise!
Remove my grief, I am burdened with sorrow,
I am weak on account of it,
Examine me, I am lacking!”
Frame-Story (cont.) (B1 71–87, R 117–138)
Now this peasant made this speech in the time of the majesty of King of Upper and Lower Egypt Nebkaure, the justified. Then the high steward Rensi, son of Meru, went before his majesty. He said: “My lord, I have found one of those peasants who is really eloquent of speech. His goods have been stolen, and, behold, he has come to appeal to me about it.” And then his majesty said: “If you wish to see me in health, you shall retain him here without replying to anything he says. In order to keep him (80) talking, be silent. Then have it brought to us in writing, that we may hear it. But provide for his wife and his children. For one of those peasants comes here (only) just before his house is empty. And provide for this peasant himself. You shall cause food to be given to him without letting him know that it is you who are providing it.”
Then he was given ten loaves and two jugs of beer every day. The high steward Rensi, son of Meru, gave it. He gave it to a friend of his and he gave it to him (the peasant). Then the high steward Rensi, son of Meru, wrote to the mayor of Salt-Field about providing food for this peasant’s wife, a total of three measures of grain every day.
Second Petition (B1 88–138)
Then this peasant came to appeal to him a second time; he said:
“High steward, my lord
Greatest of the great, richest of the rich,
Great for his great ones, rich for his rich ones!
Steering oar of heaven, beam of earth,
Plumb-line which carries the weight!
(91) Steering oar, do not diverge
Beam, do not tilt
Plumb-line, do not swing awry!
The great lord takes possession of the ownerless, stealing from the lonely man. Your portion is in your house: a jug of beer and three loaves. But what are you doing to satisfy the hunger of your dependents? A mortal man, along with his underlings, must die. Will you be a man of eternity?
Is it not wrong: a balance that tilts,
A plummet that strays,
(97) The straight becoming crooked?
Behold, justice flees from you,
Banished from its (98) seat!
When the magistrates do wrong, d
When he who is in charge of examining the plea shows partiality,33
When judges snatch what has been stolen.
He who trims a matter’s rightness makes it swing awry,
The breath-giver languishes on the ground (?)” …
(104) This peasant said:
“The measurer of grain-piles trims for himself.
He who fills for another diminishes the other’s share;
He who should rule by law, commands theft,
Who then will punish wrongdoing?
The straightener of another’s crookedness supports another’s crime …
(115) You are strong and mighty. Your arm is active, your heart greedy, mercy has passed you by … (121) He who has bread should be merciful. Violence is for the criminal; robbing suits him who has nothing. The stealing done by the robber is the misdeed of one who is poor. One cannot reproach him; he (merely) seeks for himself. But you are sated with your bread, drunken with your beer, rich in all” …
Third Petition (B1 139–193)
Then this peasant came to appeal to him a third time; he said:
“High steward, my lord,
You are Re, the lord of heaven, with your courtiers.
Men’s sustenance is from you as from the flood,
You are Hapy who makes green the fields
And re-establishes destroyed mounds.
Punish the robber and protect the miserable.
(144) Be not flood against the pleader!…
(148) Does the hand-balance deviate?
(148–149) Does the stand-balance tilt?
h Does Thoth show favour
So that you may do wrong?…
(156) By the sail-wind you should steer,
Control the waves to sail aright,
Guard from landing by the helm-rope …
(160) Speak not falsely — you are the standard,
You are the one with the hand-balance,
If it tilts you may tilt …
(165) Your tongue is the plummet,
Your heart is the weight,
Your two lips are its arms (167) …
(180) Hearer, you hear not! Why do not you hear!… (182) When the secret of truth is found, falsehood is thrown on its back on the ground. Trust not the morrow before it has come; one knows the trouble in it.”37
Now this peasant had made this claim to the high steward Rensi, son of Meru, at the entrance of the judgement hall.39 Then he had two guards stand up against him bearing whips and they thrashed all his limbs. The peasant said:
“The son of Meru goes on erring. His face is blind to what he sees, deaf to what he hears, forgetful about what he should have remembered.
Behold, you are a town (190) without a mayor,
Like a group without its ruler,
Like a ship without a captain,
Like a band without a leader.
Behold, you are an officer who steals,
A mayor who accepts (bribes),
A district overseer who should punish crime
Who is the model for him who does (it).”
Fourth Petition (B1 194–225)
And then this peasant came to appeal to him a fourth time … he said:
(197) “Goodness is destroyed, none adhere to it
(198) Throwing falsehood’s back to the ground (has also perished) …
(201) Who can sleep until daybreak? Gone is working by night, travel by day and letting a man defend his own right case.42
Behold, it is of no use telling you this; mercy has passed you by. How miserable is the wretch whom you have destroyed!…
(215) He who eats tastes; he who is asked answers; he who sleeps sees (217) the dream; and a judge who deserves punishment is a model for him who does evil. Fool, you are attacked! Ignorant man you are questioned!…
(221) Steersman, let not drift your boat
Life-sustainer, let not one die
Provider, let not one perish.
Shadow, be not sunlight
Shelter, let not the crocodile snatch!
The fourth time I apply to you! Shall I go on all day!”
Fifth Petition (B1 225–239)
And then this peasant came to appeal to him a fifth time; he said:
“High steward, my lord … (231) Rob not a poor man of his property, a weak man whom you know. Breath to the poor is his property; he who takes it away stops up his nose. You are appointed to investigate complaints and pass judgement between two (litigants), to punish the robber. But behold, supporting the thief is what you do! One puts his trust in you, but you have become a transgressor. You were placed as a dam for the poor, as a safeguard against drowning. But, behold, you are his lake, a water pourer!”
Sixth Petition (B1 239–265)
And then this peasant came to appeal to him a sixth time; he said:
“High steward, my lord!…
(247) Look with your own eyes:
The arbitrator is a robber,
The peace-maker is one who makes grief,
He who should soothe causes suffering …
(260)You are learned, skilled, accomplished,
But not in order to plunder!
You should be the model for all men,
But your affairs are crooked!
(263) The standard for all men cheats the whole land!…”
Seventh Petition (B1 266–289)
And then this peasant came to appeal to him a seventh time; he said:
“High steward, my lord!
You are the steering oar of the whole land,
This land sails around by your command.
(268) You are brother to Thoth,
The judge who is not partial …
(275) Indeed my belly is full, my heart is heavy. Therefore it has come out from my belly.
When there is a breach in a dam its waters rush out. (278) So my mouth opened to speak.
I have fought my sounding pole. I have boiled (279) out my water. I have emptied what was in my belly; I have washed my soiled linen. My speech is over; my grief is all before you.
Eighth Petition (B1 289–322)
Then this peasant came to appeal to him an eighth time; he said:
“High steward, my lord …
(303) Do justice for the Lord of Justice
Whose justice is always true;
(305) Pen, papyrus, palette of Thoth,
May you be afar from wrongdoing!
When good is good, it is really good.
For justice is for eternity;
It enters the Necropolis with its doer,
When he is buried and interred.
His name does not pass from the earth,
He is remembered because of (his) goodness,
This is the rule of god’s command.
The hand-balance — it tilts not; the stand-balance — it leans not to one side. (313) Whether I come or whether another comes, you will have to address (us). Do not answer (us) with the answer of silence. Do not attack one who cannot attack you. You have no pity, you are not troubled, you are not disturbed! You do not repay my good speech53 which comes from the mouth of Re himself …”
Ninth Petition (B2 91–115)
And then this peasant came to appeal to him a ninth time; he said:
“High steward, my lord! (92–93) The tongue is men’s stand-balance. It is the hand-balance that detects deficiency. Punish him who should be punished … (98) If falsehood walks it goes astray. It cannot cross in the ferry; it cannot advance. He who is enriched by it has no children, has no heirs on earth. He who sails (102) with it cannot reach land; (103) his boat cannot moor at its landing place … (113) Behold, I have been appealing to you (but) you do not listen to it. I shall go and appeal to Anubis about you.”
Frame-Story: Conclusion (B2 115–142)
And then the high steward, Rensi, son of Meru caused two guards to go to bring him back. Then this peasant was fearful, thinking it was done so as (118) to punish him for the claim he made … (123) And then the high steward, Rensi, son of Meru said: “Just stay here so you can hear your petitions.”
Then he caused them to be read from a new papyrus-roll, each petition in its turn. The high steward, Rensi, son of Meru, presented them to his majesty, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Nebkaure, the justified. And then it pleased the heart of his majesty more than anything in this whole land. And then his majesty said: (133) “May you yourself judge, son of Meru!” And then the high steward, Rensi son of Meru, caused two guards to go to [bring Nemty-nakht] (135). He was brought and a report was made of [all his property] … his wheat, his barley, his donkeys … of this Nemty-nakht [which was given] to this peasant …
REFERENCES
ANET 407–410; Urk. IV; Berlev 1987:78–83; Fensham 1962:129–139; Gardiner 1923:5–23; Gilula 1978:129–130; Griffiths 1960:219–221; Herrmann 1963:106–115; Kuhlmann 1992:191–207; Lichtheim AEL 1:169–184; 1983; Parkinson 1991a:171–181; 1991b; Perry 1986; Shupak 1992:1–18; 1993.
THE COMPLAINTS OF KHAKHEPERRĒ-SONB (1.44)
Nili Shupak
The work was composed during the Middle Kingdom and has been preserved on a writing tablet from the 18th Dynasty. This tablet, no. 5645 in the BM, is the single surviving copy. The author is a priest of Heliopolis and his name contains the pronomen of Sesostris II who ruled during the 12th Dynasty.
Unlike other compositions pertaining to the genre of speculative wisdom literature — “The Eloquent Peasant,” “The Prophecies of Neferti,” “The Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage,” and “The Dispute between a Man and His Ba” — this one does not contain a narrative frame in prose that serves as a setting for a rhetoric section in verse. But it has a title which is usually characteristic of the wisdom instructions (Lebenslehre) and which informs us of the nature of the subject and gives us the name of the author.
The items enumerated in the title as making up the contents of the work are called — “words,” “maxims,” and “phrases.” These words are used again in the prologue of Khakheperre-sonb’s instruction where he announces his literary ambition to say things that have never been said before.3 Nevertheless, when he comes to speak of the grievous state of society, his observations differ in no way from the utterances of either his predecessors or those who would come after him. Like them Khakheperre-sonb gives an account of adversities and calamities falling on the land and describes the ruin of the country. It also contains social admonition concerning inversion of normal social hierarchies and religious censure.
It is not clear whether the text is complete or not; it may have continued on another tablet. The author Kha-kheperre-sonb was famous in the Ramesside period, as one may conclude from the appearance of his name among the eight great Egyptian scribes in Papyrus Chester Beatty IV. On the manuscript, the verses of the composition are marked off by red dots.
Title (Recto 1)
The collection of words,
The gathering of maxims,
The quest of phrases with a searching heart,5
Made by the priest of Heliopolis, the … Khakheperre-sonb called Ankhu.
Prologue: the Aim of the Composition or the Author’s Literary Ambitions (Recto 2–7)
He says:
Would I had unknown phrases,
Maxims that are strange,
Novel untried words,
Void of repetitions;
Not maxims of past speech,
(3) Spoken by the ancestors.
I empty my belly of that which is in it,
In loosing all that I have said (before);
For what has been said is repetition,
When what was said is said.
There is no boasting in the speech of the ancestors,
When those of later times find them.
(5) One who has spoken should not speak,
But one should speak who has something to speak,
May another find what he will speak,
Not a teller of tales afterwards,
This is vain endeavour, it is lies,
And no one will mention his name to others.
I said this in accord with what I have seen:
From the first generation,
Down (7) to those who come after,
They imitate that which is past.d
The Author’s Complaint about His Inability to Speak to His Heart about It (Recto 7–9)
Would that I knew what others do not know,
Things that have never been repeated,
Then I would say them and my heart would answer me! e
(8) Then I would explain to it my distress,
Then I would shift to it the burden which is on my back,
The matters that oppress me,
I would express to it what I suffer through it
(9) And I would say “ah” with relief.
The Calamities of the Times: The Description of the Ruined Land (Recto 10–12)
I meditate on what has happened,
The events that have passed throughout the land.
Changes have taken place, it is not like last year,
One year is more burdensome than the others,
The land is in confusion and is destroyed,
Made as …
(11) Right is cast outside,
Wrong is in the council hall;
The plans of the gods are violated,
Their ordinances neglected,
The land is in turmoil,
Mourning is in everyplace,
The towns (12), the districts are in grief.
Everybody alike is subjected to wrongs,
(As for) reverence, backs are turned to it,
The Lords of Silence are disturbed;
(When) morning comes every day,
The faces shrink back from what has happened.
The Author Tries to Speak with His Heart about These Calamities (Recto 12 – Verso 1)
I cry out about it,
My limbs are weighed down;
I grieve in my heart, f
It is hard to keep silent about it.
Another heart would bend,
(But) a stout heart in trouble,
It is companion to his master.
Would that I had (such) a heart (14) that knew how to suffer,
Then I would find relief in it,
I would load it with my words of grief,
I would impose on it my malady.
(Verso 1) He said to his heart:
Come my heart, that I may speak to you —
Answer me my maxims,
And explain to me what is going on in the land,
Why those who were bright have been cast down.
Description of the Bad State of the Land (cont.) and the Inability to Speak with the Heart about It (Verso 1–6)
I meditate about what has happened,
Misery enters in today,
Strange deeds will not cease (also) tomorrow,
And all are silent about it.
The whole land is in great confusion,
Nobody is free from wrong,
All people alike are doing it,
Hearts are greedy.
He who used to give commands (3) is (now) one to whom commands are given,
And the hearts of both of them are content.
One awakes to it every day,
And the hearts do not reject it,
The state of yesterday is like today;
And one passes over it because it (the bad) is much,
(Thus) the faces (stay) solid.
None is wise (enough) to recognize it,
(4) None is angry (enough) to cry out,
One awakes to suffer every day.
Long and heavy is (my) malady,
There is no strength in the wretched man to save himself from one who overwhelms him.
It is painful to remain silent about what one hears,
It is misery to answer the ignorant.
To oppose speech makes enmity,
The heart does not accept the truth,
None endures contradiction,
Every man loves his own words.
Every man is lying in crookedness,
Right speaking is abandoned.
I speak to you (6) my heart,
Answer me!
A heart that is approached does not keep silent,
Behold the affairs of the slave are like those of his master,
There is much that weighs upon you!
REFERENCES
Urk. IV; Wb.; Junge 1977:275–284; Kadish 1973:77–90; Lichtheim AEL 1:145–149; Ockinga 1983:88–95; Shupak 1990:81–102; 1993.
THE PROPHECIES OF NEFERTI (1.45)
Nili Shupak
The single complete version of this composition is preserved on Pap. Petersburg 1116B which derives from the 18th Dynasty. This is augmented by fragments preserved on writing tablets and ostraca. “The Prophecies of Neferti” is a political document which was apparently composed in the court of the King Amenemhet I (1990–1960 BCE) who is here cast in the role of a redeemer-king. The text is introduced by a narrative frame, setting the work in the court of King Snefru of the Fourth Dynasty. The king wishing to be entertained, a lector-priest named Neferti is brought before him. Neferti is also a sage, able to utter “good words” and “choice maxims,” qualities that place him in the same category as Khakheperre-sonb and the “Eloquent Peasant.” His speech, which is presented as a prophecy, contains two main topics: The calamities of the time followed by redemption by a royal deliverer called Ameni; and social admonition concerning a variety of wrong-doings (murder, family rivalry, inversions of normal social hierarchies). But the pattern of prophecy is here only a literary disguise. The aim of the composition is to criticize the current government of the realm on the one hand, and to legitimize the monarchy of Amenemhet I on the other.
Frame-story: Introduction (1–18)
It happened when his majesty the King of Upper and Lower Egypt Snefru, the justified, was potent in this entire land. On one of these days it happened that the administrative council of the residence entered the palace l.p.h. to greet (the king). And they went out after they had greeted (him) according to their daily custom. Then his majesty l.p.h. said to the seal-bearer who was at his side: “Go and bring me back the administrative council of the residence who have gone from here after greeting (me) on this day.”
They were brought to him (5) at once and they were on their bellies before his majesty l.p.h. once more. His majesty l.p.h. said to them: Fellows, behold I have caused you to be called that you seek for me a son of yours who is wise, a brother of yours who is excellent, a friend of yours who has done a good deed, who will tell me some good words, choice formulations, which should entertain my majesty on hearing them.
Frame-Story (cont): The Summoning of Neferti (8–19)
They were on their bellies before his majesty once more. Then they said before his majesty l.p.h.: “There is a great lector priest of Bastet, O sovereign, our lord, Neferti3 is his name. He is a citizen valiant with his arm; he is excellent with his fingers; he is a wealthy man, who has greater wealth (11) than any peer of his. Let him [be permitted] to see his majesty.” Then said his majesty l.p.h. “Go and bring him to me.” And he was brought to him immediately. And he was on his belly before his majesty l.p.h. Then his majesty l.p.h. said: “Come now Neferti (13) my friend, tell me some good words, choice formulations, which will entertain my majesty on hearing them. And the lector-priest Neferti said: “Something that happened or something that is going to happen, O sovereign l.p.h., my lord.” (15) Then his majesty l.p.h. said “Something that is going to happen. It is (still) today and the passing of it already happens.” He stretched out his arm to a writing case and then he took for him a papyrus roll and a palette and put in writing what the lector-priest Neferti said;6 A sage from the east he was, one belonging to Bastet when she appears, a child of the Heliopolitan nome. He was concerned about what was happening in the land, calling to mind the state of the east with the Asiatics8 travelling in their strength (19) upsetting those who were harvesting and grabbing the taxes (assigned) for the time of ploughing.
Neferti’s Prophecies (20–71)
I. Calamities (20–57)
The Ruin of the Country (20–24)
He said:
Stir, my heart,
Bemoan this land from which you derived.
He who is silent is a wrongdoer.
Behold, there was something of which one talks respectfully,
Behold, he who was official is cast to the ground.
Weary not of what is in front of you,
(22) Stand against that which is before you!
Behold, officials in the governance of the land are no more;
What is to be done is no (longer) done,
Re should begin to recreate.
(23) The land is entirely lost, no remnant is left,
Without that the black of a nail (remains) from its taxes,
(24) This land is destroyed, none cares about it,
None speaks and none sheds a tear: “How will this land be?”
Natural Disasters (25–29)
The sun is covered and does not shine for the people to see, a
No one can live when the clouds cover (the sun),
Every face is numb from lack of it.
I shall say what is before me,
I cannot foretell what has not yet come.
The river of Egypt is empty,
One can cross the water on foot,
One will seek water for the ships to sail on.
Its course has become a riverbank,
A riverbank will be water,
What is in the water place will be riverbank. b
Southwind will combat northwind,
So that sky will lack the single wind.
Disasters Caused by Human Beings (29–57)
1. Infiltration of Delta by Asiatics (29–38)
Strange birds will breed in the marshes of the Delta
After making a nest near the people.
The people let them approach because of the shortage,
Perished indeed are those good things,
Those fish ponds (where there were) those who clean fish,
Overflowing with fish and fowl.
All good things have passed away,
(32) The land is burdened with misfortune
Because of those looking (?) for food,
Asiatics roaming the land.
Foes (33) have arisen in the east,
Asiatics have descended into Egypt.
The fortifications are destroyed …
(34) When one will enter the fortifications,
When sleep will be banished from my eyes,
I spend the night wakeful.
The wild beasts of the desert will drink from the river (36) of Egypt,
They will be content on their banks by the absence of anyone to chase them away.
For the land is seized and recovered (lit., brought)
And no one knows the result.
What will happen is hidden according to the saying,
(38) “When sight and hearing fail, the mute leads.”
2. Civil Disasters (38–54)
I show you the land in turmoil,
(39) That which has never happened has happened.
One will seize the weapons of warfare,
The land lives in (40) confusion.
One will make arrows of copper,
One will beg for bread with blood,
One will laugh at distress;
None will weep over death,
None spends the night fasting because of death,
The heart of a man cares only for himself.
Mourning is no (longer) carried out today,
Hearts have quite abandoned it.
A man sits with his back turned,
While one man kills another.
I show you a son as an enemy,
A brother as a foe,
A man (45) killing his (own) father. f
Every mouth is full of “love me,”
Everything good has disappeared.
The land has perished, laws are destined for it,
Deprived of produce, lacking in crops,
What was done is (47) as if it were not done.
One will take the property of a man, and give it to a stranger,
I show you a lord in worries, the stranger satisfied.
(48) He who has never filled up for himself is now empty. g
One will give something (only) out of hatred,
In order to silence the mouth that speaks;
One answers a complaint with an arm holding a stick
And says, Kill him!
The words fall on the heart like fire,
(50) None can endure a saying.
The land diminishes but its rulers are numerous,
Bare, (but) its taxes are great.
The grain is low (51) the measure is large,
One measures it in overflow.
Re separates himself (from) mankind
If he shines the hour exists
(But now) none knows when noon comes;
None can discern his shadow,
None is dazzled by seeing (him),
Nor do the eyes fill with water.
As he is in the sky like the moon,
But his time of nightfall cannot be transgressed (i.e., remains unchanged),
(54) His rays will be on the face again as in former times.
3. The World Upside Down: Inversion of Social Order (54–57)
I show you the land in turmoil,
The weak of arm is (now) the possessor of an arm,
One salutes him who (formerly) saluted.
I show you the lowly as superior …
One lives in the necropolis.
The poor man will make wealth,
The great one will [pray] to live.
The beggar will eat bread,
The slaves will be exalted (?). g
The Heliopolitan nome, the birthplace of every god, will not (longer) be.
II. Redemption (58–71)
The Redeemer King (58–62)
Then a king will come from the south,
Imeny, the justified, is his name,
A son is he of a woman of the land of Nubia,
A child is he of Upper Egypt.
He will take the white crown,
He will wear the red crown;
(60) He will unite the Two Mighty Ones, j
He will appease the Two Lords with what they desire,
The field-encircler in his fist, the oar in motion.
Rejoice, O people of his time,
The son of man will make his name forever and ever.
The Rehabilitation of the Country: Driving Away the Enemy and Restoring Order (62–71)
They who incline toward evil,k
Who plot rebellion,
(63) They subdued their mouth in fear of him.
The Asiatics will fall to his slaughter,
The Libyans will fall to his flame,
The rebels to his wrath, the traitors to (65) his might,
The serpent which is on his forehead will still the traitors for him.
One will (66) build the Walls of the Ruler l.p.h.,
To prevent Asiatics from descending to Egypt;
They will beg for water in the customary manner,
In order to let their herds drink.
Then order will come into its place
While wrongdoing is driven out.
Joyful will be he who will observe and he who will serve the king.
The wise man will pour out water for me,
When he sees that what I have spoken comes to pass.
It has come to its end successfully by the scribe …
REFERENCES
Barta 1971; Blumenthal 1982; Derchain 1972; Goedicke 1977; Helck 1970a; Lichtheim AEL 1:139–145; Shupak 1989–90:1–40; 1993; Westendorf 1973.
3. INSTRUCTIONS
INSTRUCTION OF ANY (1.46)
Miriam Lichtheim
The Instruction of Any has long been known through a single manuscript: Papyrus Boulaq 4 of the Cairo Museum, which dates from the 21st or 22nd Dynasty. Of the first pages only small fragments have remained, and the copy as a whole abounds in textual corruptions due to incomprehension on the part of the copying scribe. The introductory sentence of the work is preserved on a tablet in the Berlin Museum (No. 8934), and small portions of the text are found in three papyrus fragments in the Musée Guimet, in Papyrus Chester Beatty V of the British Museum, and in four ostraca from Deir el Medina.
Given the corruption and lacunae of the main text copy and the absence of sizeable duplicate copies, the text has presented great difficulties to editors and translators. In the words of Gardiner: “The papyrus known as P. Boulaq IV, to the contents of which Chabas gave the name Les Maximes du scribe Anii, has long enjoyed the unenviable reputation of being the obscurest of all Egyptian wisdom texts” (1959a:12).
The work itself was composed in the New Kingdom, almost certainly in the 18th Dynasty. It combines traditional themes with a certain amount of innovation. Two aspects, in particular, distinguish it from most earlier Instructions. One is the fact that the Instruction of Any comes from the sphere of the middle class and is meant for the average man. The author presents himself as a minor official, and the advice he dispenses, in the usual form of a father instructing his son, is suited to the thinking of anyone who possessed a modicum of education and of material comforts. Thus there is nothing specifically aristocratic about the values that are taught. This is, of course, in keeping with the evolution of Egyptian society and with the growth of the middle class.
The other novel feature appears in the epilogue. In earlier Instructions the epilogue had consisted either in the grateful acceptance of the teaching by the listeners, or in the teacher’s conclusion urging compliance. The epilogue of Any, however, is a debate between father and son in which the son makes the objection that the father’s teachings are too difficult to be understood and obeyed. By making the son disinclined to learn and obey, the author of the work introduced a new dimension into the concept of didactic literature: the thought that instruction might fail to have an impact. The thought is introduced in order to be refuted. The father has the last word as well as the more telling arguments. Yet the expression of a negative point of view adds a fresh and realistic note to the Instruction genre by showing an awareness that the efficacy of teaching could be questioned and that the teachability of man had its limitations.
The page and line numbering used here is that of Suys’s publication (1935) which was also employed by Volten (1937–38). My translation begins with page 3.1 preceded by the title of the work found on the Berlin tablet.
Beginning of the educational instruction made by the Scribe Any of the Palace of Queen Nefertari.
(3.1) Take a wife while you’re young,
That she make a son for you;
She should bear for you while you’re youthful,
It is proper to make people.
Happy the man whose people are many,
He is saluted on account of his progeny.
Observe the feast of your god,
And repeat its season,
God is angry if it is neglected.
Put up witnesses (3.5) when you offer,
The first time that you do it.
When one comes to seek your record,
Have them enter you in the roll;
When time comes to seek your purchase,
It will extol the might of the god.
Song, dance, incense are his foods,
Receiving prostrations is his wealth;
The god does it to magnify his name,
But man it is who is inebriated.
Do not (3.10) enter the house of anyone,
Until he admits you and greets you;
Do not snoop around in his house,
Let your eye observe in silence.
Do not speak of him to another outside,
Who was not with you;
A great deadly crime
…
Beware of a woman who is a stranger,
One not known in her town;
Don’t stare at her when she goes by,
Do not know her carnally.
A deep water whose course is unknown,
Such is a woman away from her husband.
“I am pretty,” she tells you daily,
When she has no witnesses;
She is ready to ensnare you,
A great deadly crime when it is heard.
…
Do not leave when the chiefs enter,
Lest your name stink;
In a quarrel (4.1) do not speak,
Your silence will serve you well.
Do not raise your voice in the house of god,
He abhors shouting;
Pray by yourself with a loving heart,
Whose every word is hidden.
He will grant your needs,
He will hear your words,
He will accept your offerings.
Libate for your father and mother,
Who are resting in the valley;
When the gods (4.5) witness your action,
They will say: “Accepted.”
Do not forget the one outside,
Your son will act for you likewise.
Don’t indulge in drinking beer,
Lest you utter evil speech
And don’t know what you’re saying.
If you fall and hurt your body,
None holds out a hand to you;
Your companions in the drinking
Stand up saying: “Out with the drunk!”
If one comes to seek you (4.10) and talk with you.
One finds you lying on the ground.
As if you were a little child.
Do not go out of your house,
Without knowing your place of rest.
Let your chosen place be known,
Remember it and know it.
Set it before you as the path to take,
If you are straight you find it.
Furnish your station in the valley,
The grave that shall conceal your corpse;
Set it before you as your concern,
A thing that matters in your eyes.
Emulate the great departed,
Who are at rest within their tombs.
No blame accrues to him who does it,
It is well that you be ready too.
When your envoy (5.1) comes to fetch you,
He shall find you ready to come
To your place of rest and saying:
“Here comes one prepared before you.”
Do not say, “I am young to be taken,”
For you do not know your death.
When death comes he steals the infant
Who is in his mother’s arms,
Just like him who reached old age.
Behold, I give you these useful counsels,
For you to ponder in your heart;
Do it (5.5) and you will be happy,
All evils will be far from you.
Guard against the crime of fraud,
Against words that are not <true>;
Conquer malice in your self,
A quarrelsome man does not rest on the morrow.
Keep away from a hostile man,
Do not let him be your comrade;
Befriend one who is straight and true,
One whose actions you have seen.
If your rightness matches his,
The friendship will be balanced.
Let your hand preserve what is in your house,
Wealth accrues to him who guards it;
Let your hand not scatter it to (5.10) strangers,
Lest it turn to loss for you.
If wealth is placed where it bears interest,
It comes back to you redoubled;
Make a storehouse for your own wealth,
Your people will find it on your way.
What is given small returns augmented,
❐What is replaced brings abundance.❒
The wise lives off the house of the fool,
Protect what is yours and you find it;
Keep your eye on what you own,
Lest you end as a beggar.
He who is slack amounts to nothing,
Honored is the man who’s active.
…
(6.1) Learn about the way of a man
Who undertakes to found his household.
Make a garden, enclose a patch,
In addition to your plowland;
Set out trees within it,
As shelter about your house.
Fill your hand with all the flowers
That your eye can see;
One has need of all of them,
It is good fortune not to lose them.
Do not rely on another’s goods,
Guard what you acquire yourself;
Do not depend on another’s wealth,
Lest he become master in your house.
Build a house or find and buy one,
Shun ❐contention❒
Don’t say: “My mother’s father has a house,
❐‘A house that lasts,’❒ one calls it;”
When you come to share with your brothers,
Your portion may be a storeroom.
If your god lets you have children,
They’ll say: “We are in our father’s house.”
Be a man hungry or sated in his house,
It is his walls (6.10) that enclose him.
Do not be a mindless person,
Then your god will give you wealth.
Do not sit when another is standing,
One who is older than you,
Or greater than you in his rank.
No good character is reproached,
An evil character is blamed.
Walk the accustomed path each day
Stand according to your rank.
“Who’s there?” So one always says,
Rank creates its rules;
A woman is asked about (6.15) her husband
A man is asked about his rank.
Do not speak rudely to a brawler,
When you are attacked hold yourself back;
You will find this good (7.1) when your relations are friendly,
When trouble has come it will help you bear up,
And the aggressor will desist.
Deeds that are effective toward a stranger
Are very noxious to a brother.
Your people will hail you when you are joyful,
They will weep freely <when you are sad>;
When you are happy the brave look to you,
When you are lonely you find your relations.
One will do all you say
If you are versed in writings;
Study the writings, put them in your heart,
(7.5) Then all your words will be effective.
Whatever office a scribe is given,
He should consult the writings;
The head of the treasury has no son,
The master of the seal has no heir.
The scribe is chosen for his hand,
His office has no children;
His pronouncements are his freemen,
His functions are his masters.
Do not reveal your heart to a stranger,
He might use your words against you;
The noxious speech that came from your mouth,
He repeats it and you make enemies.
A man may be ruined by his tongue,
Beware and you will do well.
A man’s belly is wider than a granary,
And full of all kinds of answers;
(7.10) Choose the good one and say it,
While the bad is shut in your belly.
A rude answer brings a beating,
Speak sweetly and you will be loved.
Don’t ever talk back to your attacker,
❐Do not set a trap <for him>❒;
It is the god who judges the righteous,
His fate comes and takes him away. f
Offer to your god,
Beware of offending him.
Do not question his images,
Do not accost him when he appears.
Do not jostle him in order to carry him,
Do not disturb the oracles.
Be careful, help to protect him,
Let your eye watch out (7.15) for his wrath,
And kiss the ground in his name.
He gives power in a million forms,
He who magnifies him is magnified.
God of this earth is the sun in the sky,
While his images are on earth;
When incense is given them as daily food,
The lord of risings is satisfied.
Double the food your mother gave you,
Support her as she supported you;
She had a heavy load in you,
But she did not abandon you.
When you were born after your months,
She was yet yoked <to you>,
Her breast in your mouth for three years.
As you grew and your excrement disgusted,
She was not disgusted, saying: “What shall I do!”
When she sent you to school,
And you were taught to write,
She kept watching over you daily,
With bread (8.1) and beer in her house.
When as a youth you take a wife,
And you are settled in your house,
Pay attention to your offspring,
Bring him up as did your mother.
Do not give her cause to blame you,
Lest she raise her hands to god,
And he hears her cries.
Do not eat bread while another stands by
Without extending your hand to him.
As to food, it is here always,
It is man (8.5) who does not last;
One man is rich, another is poor,
But food remains for him ❐who shares it.❒
As to him who was rich last year,
He is a vagabond this year;
Don’t be greedy to fill your belly,
You don’t know your end at all.
Should you come to be in want,
Another may do good to you.
When last year’s watercourse is gone,
Another river is here today;
Great lakes become dry places,
Sandbanks turn into depths.
Man does not have a single (8.10) way,
The lord of life confounds him.
Attend to your position,
Be it low or high;
It is not good to press forward,
Step according to rank.
Do not intrude on a man in his house,
Enter when you have been called;
He may say “Welcome” with his mouth,
Yet deride you in his thoughts.
One gives food to one who is hated,
Supplies to one who enters uninvited.
Don’t rush to attack your attacker,
Leave him to the god;
Report him daily to the god,
(8.15) Tomorrow being like today,
And you will see what the god does,
When he injures him who injured you.
Do not enter into a crowd,
If you find it in an uproar
And about to come to blows.
Don’t pass anywhere near by,
Keep away from their tumult,
Lest you be brought before the court,
When an inquiry is made.
Stay away from hostile people,
Keep your heart quiet among fighters;
An outsider is not brought to court,
One who knows nothing is not bound in fetters.
(9.1) It is useful to help one whom one loves,
❐So as to cleanse him of his faults;❒
❐You will be sage from his errors,❒
…
The first of the herd leads to the field.
…
Do not control your wife in her house,
When you know she is efficient;
Don’t say to her: “Where is it? Get it!”
When she has put it in the right place.
Let your eye observe in silence,
Then you recognize her (9.5) skill;
It is joy when your hand is with her,
There are many who don’t know this.
If a man desists from strife at home,
He will not encounter its beginning.
Every man who founds a household
Should hold back the hasty heart.
Do not go after a woman,
Let her not steal your heart.
Do not talk back to an angry superior,
Let him have his way;
Speak sweetly when he speaks sourly,
It’s the remedy that calms the heart.
Fighting answers carry sticks,
And your strength collapses;
…
Do not vex your heart.
He will return to praise you soon,
When his hour of rage has passed.
If your words please the heart,
(9.10) The heart tends to accept them;
Choose silence for yourself,
Submit to what he does.
Befriend the herald of your quarter,
Do not make him angry with you.
Give him food from your house,
Do not slight his requests;
Say to him, “Welcome, welcome here,”
No blame accrues to him who does it.
…
Epilogue
The scribe Khonshotep answered his father, the scribe Any:
I wish I were like (you),
As learned as you!
Then I would carry out your teachings,
And the son would be brought to his father’s place.
Each man (9.15) is led by his nature,
You are a man who is a master,
Whose strivings are exalted,
Whose every word is chosen.
The son, he understands little
When he recites the words in the books.
But when your words please the heart,
The heart tends to accept them with joy.
Don’t make your virtues too numerous,
That one may raise one’s thoughts to you;
A boy does not follow the moral instructions,
Though the writings are on his tongue!
The scribe Any answered his son, the scribe Khonshotep:
Do not rely on such worthless thoughts,
Beware of what you do to yourself!
I judge your complaints to be wrong,
I shall set you right about them.
There’s nothing [superfluous in] our words,
Which you say you wished were reduced.
The fighting (10.1) bull who kills in the stable,
He forgets and abandons the arena;
He conquers his nature,
Remembers what he’s learned,
And becomes the like of a fattened ox.
The savage lion abandons his wrath,
And comes to resemble the timid donkey.
The horse slips into its harness,
Obedient it goes outdoors.
The dog obeys the word,
And walks behind its master.
The monkey carries the stick,
Though its mother did not carry it.
(10.5) The goose returns from the pond,
When one comes to shut it in the yard.
One teaches the Nubian to speak Egyptian,
The Syrian and other strangers too.
Say: “I shall do like all the beasts,”
Listen and learn what they do.
The scribe Khonshotep answered his father, the scribe Any:
Do not proclaim your powers,
So as to force me to your ways;
❐Does it not happen to a man to slacken his hand,❒
So as to hear an answer in its place?
Man resembles the god in his way
If he listens to a man’s answer.
❐One (man) cannot know his fellow,❒
If the masses are beasts;
❐One (man) cannot know his teachings,❒
And alone possess a mind,
If the multitudes are foolish.
All your sayings are excellent,
But doing them ❐requires virtues❒
Tell the god who gave you wisdom:
“Set them on your path!”
The scribe Any answered his son, the scribe Khonshotep:
Turn your back to these many words,
That are ❐not worth❒ being heard.
The crooked stick left on the ground,
With sun and shade attacking it,
If the carpenter takes it, he straightens it,
Makes of it a noble’s staff,
And a straight stick makes a collar.
You foolish heart,
Do you wish us to teach,
Or have you been corrupted?
“Look,” said he, “you ❐my father,❒
You who are wise and strong of hand:
The infant in his mother’s arms,
His wish is for what nurses him.”
“Look,” said he, “when he finds his speech,
He says: ‘Give me bread.’ ”
REFERENCES
Text: Mariette 1871 pls. 15–28; Suys 1935. Other fragments: Gardiner 1935a 2:50 and 2:27: P. Chester Beatty V, verso 2, 6–11 (= P. Boulaq 4, 3, 1–3 and 6, 1–4); Posener 1935: nos. 1063, 1257, 1258, 1259. Translation: Volten 1937–38; Erman 1927:234–242. ANET 420–421 (excerpts); Volten 1941:373–374; Gardiner 1959a; Lichtheim AEL 2:135–146.
INSTRUCTION OF AMENEMOPE (1.47)
Miriam Lichtheim
With this long work, the Instruction genre reaches its culmination. Its worth lies not in any thematic richness, for its range is much narrower than, for example, that of the Instruction of Ptahhotep. Its worth lies in its quality of inwardness. Though it is still assumed that right thinking and right action will find their reward, worldly success, which had meant so much in the past, has receded into the background. Even poverty is no longer viewed as a misfortune.
The shift of emphasis, away from action and success, and toward contemplation and endurance, leads to an overall regrouping of values and a redefinition of the ideal man. As early as Ptahhotep, the ideal man lacked all martial values; he was a man of peace who strove for advancement and was generous with his wealth. The new ideal man is content with a humble position and a minimal amount of material possessions. His chief characteristic is modesty. He is self-controlled, quiet, and kind toward people, and he is humble before God. This ideal man is indeed not a perfect man, for perfection is now viewed as belonging only to God.
The style of Amenemope is rich in similes and metaphors which are sustained at length and with skill. The work as a whole is carefully composed and unified, both through the device of thirty numbered chapters and through a concentration on two basic themes: first, the depiction of the ideal man, the “silent man,” and his adversary, the “heated man”; second, the exhortation to honesty and warnings against dishonesty. All other themes are subservient to these central ones.
The composition of the work is now usually assigned to the Ramesside period, although all the manuscript copies that have reached us are of later date. It was during the Ramesside age that the tribes of Israel became a nation, and much of Israelite knowledge of things Egyptian, as reflected in the Bible, resulted from contacts during this period. The most tangible literary evidence of these contacts is found in the chips from the Instruction of Amenemope that are embedded in the Book of Proverbs. It can hardly be doubted that the author of Proverbs was acquainted with the Egyptian work and borrowed from it, for in addition to the similarities in thought and expression — especially close and striking in Proverbs 22 and 23 — the line in 22:20: “Have I not written for you thirty sayings of admonition and knowledge” derives its meaning from the author’s acquaintance with the “thirty” chapters of Amenemope. Ever since Adolf Erman pointed this out there has been a consensus among scholars on a literary relationship, although some scholars have tried to interpret it in reverse by claiming priority for the Hebrew text, or have proposed to derive both works from a lost Semitic original.
The Instruction of Amenemope is completely preserved in the British Museum Papyrus 10474. Small portions of it are found on a papyrus in Stockholm, three writing tablets in Turin, Paris, and Moscow, respectively, and an ostracon in the Cairo Museum. In the British Museum papyrus and on the Turin and Louvre tablets the text is written stichically, that is to say, in lines that show the metrical scheme. This is unusual and important, for it allows us to see the metrical organization rather than having to guess it. And since the work is also divided into thirty numbered chapters, we are here precisely informed about two basic features of Egyptian prosody as applied to a particular work: the organization of the metrical line and the grouping of lines into sections or chapters.
The metrical line turns out to be exactly what one expects it to be. It consists of self–contained sentences or clauses. Through parallelism and related devices the lines are grouped loosely into distichs, tristichs, and quatrains. There is no indication that these groups of lines were further gathered into strophes or stanzas. Nor would such strophes be suited to the nature of instructional works. For the Instructions consist of thoughts developed freely over greater or lesser length, and the natural divisions occur when one topic is concluded and another taken up. In earlier Instructions such divisions were not marked by graphic or verbal devices; in Amenemope they are brought out clearly through the use of numbered chapters.
Amenemope is a difficult text. It abounds in rare words, elliptic phrases, and allusions whose meaning escapes us. Furthermore, the copying scribes introduced numerous errors. But we are fortunate to have the complete text preserved in the British Museum Papyrus, where it occupies all twenty–seven pages of the recto and the first line of the verso.
Prologue
I.1 Beginning of the teaching for life,
The instructions for well–being,
Every rule for relations with elders,
For conduct toward magistrates;
5 Knowing how to answer one who speaks,
To reply to one who sends a message.
So as to direct him on the paths of life,
To make him prosper upon earth;
To let his heart enter its shrine,
10 Steering clear of evil;
To save him from the mouth of strangers,
To let (him) be praised in the mouth of people.
Made by the overseer of fields, experienced in his office,
The offspring of a scribe of Egypt,
15 The overseer of grains who controls the measure,
Who sets the harvest–dues for his lord,
Who registers the islands of new land,
In the great name of his majesty,
Who records the markers on the borders of fields,
II.1 Who acts for the king in his listing of taxes,
Who makes the land–register of Egypt;
The scribe who determines the offerings for all the gods.
Who gives land–leases to the people,
5 The overseer of grains, [provider of] foods,
Who supplies the granary with grains;
The truly silent in This of Ta–wer,
The justified in Ipu,
Who owns a tomb on the west of Senu,
10 Who has a chapel at Abydos,
Amenemope, the son of Kanakht,
The justified in Ta-wer.
<For> his son, the youngest of his children,
The smallest of his family,
15 The devotee of Min–Kamutef,
The water-pourer of Wennofer,
Who places Horus on his father’s throne,
Who guards him in his noble shrine,
Who –––––
III.1 The guardian of the mother of god,
Inspector of the black cattle of the terrace of Min,
Who protects Min in his shrine:
Hor–em–maakher is his true name,
5 The child of a nobleman of Ipu,
The son of the sistrum–player of Shu and Tefnut,
And chief songstress of Horus, Tawosre.
Chapter 1
He says:
Give your ears, hear the sayings,
10 Give your heart to understand them;
It profits to put them in your heart,
Woe to him who neglects them!
Let them rest in the casket of your belly,
May they be bolted in your heart;
15 When there rises a whirlwind of words,
They’ll be a mooring post for your tongue.
If you make your life with these in your heart,
You will find it a success;
IV.1 You will find my words a storehouse for life,
Your being will prosper upon earth.
Chapter 2
Beware of robbing a wretch,
5 Of attacking a cripple;
Don’t stretch out your hand to touch an old man,
Nor ❐open your mouth❒ to an elder.
Don’t let yourself be sent on a mischievous errand,
Nor be friends with him who does it.
10 Don’t raise an outcry against one who attacks you,
Nor answer him yourself.
He who does evil, the shore rejects him,
Its floodwater carries him away.
The northwind descends to end his hour,
15 It mingles with the thunderstorm.
The storm cloud is tall, the crocodiles are vicious,
You heated man, how are you now?
He cries out, his voice reaches heaven,
It is the Moon who declares his crime.
V.1 Steer, we will ferry the wicked,
We do not act like his kind;
Lift him up, give him your hand,
Leave him <in> the hands of the god;
5 Fill his belly with bread of your own,
That he be sated and weep.
Another thing good in the heart of the god:
To pause before speaking.
Chapter 3
10 Don’t start a quarrel with a hot-mouthed man,
Nor needle him with words.
Pause before a foe, bend before an attacker,
Sleep (on it) before speaking.
A storm that bursts like fire in straw,
15 Such is the heated man in his hour.
Withdraw from him, leave him alone,
The god knows how to answer him.
If you make your life with these (words) in your heart,
Your children will observe them.
Chapter 4
As for the heated man in the temple,
He is like a tree growing ❐indoors❒;
A moment lasts its growth of ❐shoots❒.
Its end comes about in the ❐woodshed❒;
VI.5 It is floated far from its place,
The flame is its burial shroud.
The truly silent, who keeps apart,
He is like a tree grown in a meadow.
It greens, it doubles its yield,
10 It stands in front of its lord.
Its fruit is sweet, its shade delightful,
Its end comes in the garden.
Chapter 5
Do not falsify the temple rations,
15 Do not grasp and you’ll find profit.
Do not remove a servant of the god,
So as to do favors to another.
Do not say: “Today is like tomorrow,”
How will this end?
VII.1 Comes tomorrow, today has vanished,
The deep has become the water’s edge.
Crocodiles are bared, hippopotami stranded,
The fish crowded together.
5 Jackals are sated, birds are in feast,
The fishnets have been drained.
But all the silent in the temple,
They say: “Re’s blessing is great.”
Cling to the silent, then you find life.
10 Your being will prosper upon earth.
Chapter 6
Do not move the markers on the borders of fields,
Nor shift the position of the measuring-cord.
Do not be greedy for a cubit of land,
15 Nor encroach on the boundaries of a widow.
The trodden furrow worn down by time,
He who disguises it in the fields,
When he has snared (it) by false oaths,
He will be caught by the might of the Moon.
VIII.1 Recognize him who does this on earth:
He is an oppressor of the weak,
A foe bent on destroying your being,
The taking of life is in his eye.
5 His house is an enemy to the town,
His storage bins will be destroyed
His wealth will be seized from his children’s hands,
His possessions will be given to another.
Beware of destroying the borders of fields,
10 Lest a terror carry you away;
One pleases god with the might of the lord
When one discerns the borders of fields.
Desire your being to be sound,
Beware of the Lord of All;
15 Do not erase another’s furrow,
It profits you to keep it sound.
Plow your fields and you’ll find what you need,
You’ll receive bread from your threshing-floor.
Better is a bushel given you by the god,
20 Than five thousand through wrongdoing.
IX.1 They stay not a day in bin and barn,
They make no food for the beer jar,
A moment is their stay in the granary,
Comes morning they have vanished.
5 Better is poverty in the hand of the god,
Than wealth in the storehouse;
Better is bread with a happy heart
Than wealth with vexation.
Chapter 7
10 Do not set your heart on wealth,
There is no ignoring Fate and Destiny;
Do not let your heart go straying,
Every man comes to his hour.
Do not strain to seek increase,
15 What you have, let it suffice you.
If riches come to you by theft,
They will not stay the night with you.
Comes day they are not in your house
Their place is seen but they’re not there;
20 Earth opened its mouth, leveled them, swallowed them,
X.1 And made them sink into dat.
They made a hole as big as their size,
And sank into the netherworld;
They made themselves wings like geese,
5 And flew away to the sky.
Do not rejoice in wealth from theft,
Nor complain of being poor.
If the leading archer presses forward,
His company abandons him;
10 The boat of the greedy is left (in) the mud,
While the bark of the silent sails with the Wind.
You shall pray to the Aten when he rises,
Saying: “Grant me well–being and health”;
He will give you your needs for this life,
15 And you will be safe from fear.
Chapter 8
Set your goodness before people,
Then you are greeted by all;
One welcomes the Uraeus,
20 One spits upon Apopis. Guard your tongue from harmful speech,
XI.1 Then you will be loved by others.
You will find your place in the house of god,
You will share in the offerings of your lord.
When you’re revered and your coffin conceals you
5 You will be safe from the power of god.
Do not shout “crime” against a man,
When the cause of (his) flight is hidden.
Whether you hear something good or evil,
Do it outside where it is not heard.
10 Put the good remark on your tongue,
While the bad is concealed in your belly.
Chapter 9
Do not befriend the heated man,
Nor approach him for conversation.
15 Keep your tongue from answering your superior,
And take care not to insult him.
Let him not cast his speech to catch you,
Nor give free rein to your answer.
Converse with a man of your own measure,
20 And take care not to ❐offend❒ him.
XII.1 Swift is the speech of one who is angered,
More than wind ❐over❒ water.
He tears down, he builds up with his tongue,
When he makes his hurtful speech.
5 He gives an answer worthy of a beating,
For its weight is harm.
He hauls freight like all the world,
But his load is falsehood.
He is the ferry-man of snaring words,
10 He goes and comes with quarrels.
When he eats and drinks inside,
His answer is (heard) outside.
The day he is charged with his crime is misfortune for his children.
15 If only Khnum came to him,
The Potter to the heated man,
So as to knead the ❐faulty❒ heart.
He is like a young wolf in the farmyard,
He turns one eye against the other,
XIII.1 He causes brothers to quarrel.
He runs before every wind like clouds,
He dims the radiance of the sun;
He flips his tail like the crocodile’s young,
5 ❐He draws himself up so as to strike.❒
His lips are sweet, his tongue is bitter,
A fire burns in his belly.
Don’t leap to join such a one,
Lest a terror carry you away.
Chapter 10
Don’t force yourself to greet the heated man,
For then you injure your own heart;
Do not say “greetings” to him falsely,
While there is terror in your belly.
15 Do not speak falsely to a man,
The god abhors it;
Do not sever your heart from your tongue,
That all your strivings may succeed.
You will be weighty before the others,
XIV.1 And secure in the hand of the god.
God hates the falsifier of words,
He greatly abhors the dissembler.
Chapter 11
5 Do not covet a poor man’s goods,
Nor hunger for his bread;
A poor man’s goods are a block in the throat,
It makes the gullet vomit.
He who makes gain by lying oaths,
10 His heart is misled by his belly;
Where there is fraud success is feeble,
The bad spoils the good.
You will be guilty before your superior,
And confused in your account;
15 Your pleas will be answered by a curse,
Your prostrations by a beating.
The big mouthful of bread — you swallow, you vomit it,
And you are emptied of your gain.
Observe the overseer of the poor,
XV.1 When the stick attains him;
All his people are bound in chains,
And he is led to the executioner.
If you are released before your superior,
5 You are yet hateful to your subordinates;
Steer away from the poor man on the road,
Look at him and keep clear of his goods.
Chapter 12
Do not desire a noble’s wealth,
10 Nor make free with a big mouthful of bread;
If he sets you to manage his property,
Shun his, and yours will prosper.
Do not converse with a heated man,
So as to befriend a hostile man.
15 If you are sent to transport straw,
Stay away from its container.
If a man is observed on a fraudulent errand,
He will not be sent on another occasion.
Chapter 13
Do not cheat a man <through> pen on scroll,
The god abhors it;
XVI.1 Do not bear witness with false words,
So as to brush aside a man by your tongue.
Do not assess a man who has nothing,
And thus falsify your pen.
5 If you find a large debt against a poor man,
Make it into three parts;
Forgive two, let one stand,
You will find it a path of life.
After sleep, when you wake in the morning,
10 You will find it as good news.
Better is praise with the love of men
Than wealth in the storehouse;
Better is bread with a happy heart
Than wealth with vexation.
15 Chapter 14
Do not recall yourself to a man,
Nor strain to seek his hand.
If he says to you: “Here is a gift.
❐No have-not❒ will refuse it,”
Don’t blink at him, nor bow your head,
Nor turn aside your gaze.
Salute him with your mouth, say, “Greetings,”
XVII.1 He will desist, and you succeed.
Do not rebuff him in his approach,
❐Another time he’ll be taken away.❒
Chapter 15
5 Do the good and you will prosper,
Do not dip your pen to injure a man.
The finger of the scribe is the beak of the Ibis,
Beware of brushing it aside.
The Ape dwells in the House of Khmun,
10 His eye encircles the Two Lands;
When he sees one who cheats with his finger,
He carries his livelihood off in the flood.
The scribe who cheats with his finger,
His son will not be enrolled.
15 If you make your life with these (words) in your heart,
Your children will observe them.
Chapter 16
Do not move the scales nor alter the weights,
Nor diminish the fractions of the measure;
20 Do not desire a measure of the fields,
Nor neglect those of the treasury.
The Ape sits by the balance,
XVIII.1 His heart is in the plummet;
Where is a god as great as Thoth,
Who invented these things and made them?
Do not make for yourself deficient weights,
5 They are rich in grief through the might of god.
If you see someone who cheats,
Keep your distance from him.
Do not covet copper,
Disdain beautiful linen;
10 What good is one dressed in finery,
If he cheats before the god?
Faience disguised as gold,
Comes day, it turns to lead.
Chapter 17
15 Beware of disguising the measure,
So as to falsify its fractions;
Do not force it to overflow,
Nor let its belly be empty.
Measure according to its true size,
20 Your hand clearing exactly.
Do not make a bushel of twice its size,
For then you are headed for the abyss.
The bushel is the Eye of Re,
XIX.1 It abhors him who trims;
A measurer who indulges in cheating,
His Eye seals (the verdict) against him.
Do not accept a farmer’s dues
5 And then assess him so as to injure him;
Do not conspire with the measurer,
So as to defraud the share of the Residence.
Greater is the might of the threshing floor
Than an oath by the great throne.
10 Chapter 18
Do not lie down in fear of tomorrow:
“Comes day, how will tomorrow be?”
Man ignores how tomorrow will be;
God is ever in his perfection,
15 Man is ever in his failure.
The words men say are one thing,
The deeds of the god are another.
Do not say: “I have done no wrong,”
And then strain to seek a quarrel;
20 The wrong belongs to the god,
He seals (the verdict) with his finger.
There is no perfection before the god,
But there is failure before him;
XX.1 If one strains to seek perfection,
In a moment he has marred it.
Keep firm your heart, steady your heart,
Do not steer with your tongue;
5 If a man’s tongue is the boat’s rudder,
The Lord of All is yet its pilot.
Chapter 19
Do not go to court before an official
In order to falsify your words;
10 Do not vacillate in your answers,
When your witnesses accuse.
Do not strain <with> oaths by your lord,
<With> speeches at the hearing;
Tell the truth before the official,
15 Lest he lay a hand on you.
If another day you come before him,
He will incline to all you say;
He will relate your speech to the Council of Thirty,
It will be observed on another occasion.
20 Chapter 20
Do not confound a man in the law court,
In order to brush aside one who is right.
XXI.1 Do not incline to the well–dressed man,
And rebuff the one in rags.
Don’t accept the gift of a powerful man,
And deprive the weak for his sake.
5 Maat is a great gift of god,
He gives it to whom he wishes.
The might of him who resembles him,
It saves the poor from his tormentor.
Do not make for yourself false documents,
10 They are a deadly provocation;
They (mean) the great restraining oath,
They (mean) a hearing by the herald.
Don’t falsify the oracles in the scrolls,
And thus disturb the plans of god;
15 Don’t use for yourself the might of god,
As if there were no Fate and Destiny.
Hand over property to its owners,
Thus do you seek life for yourself;
Don’t raise your desire in their house,
20 Or your bones belong to the execution-block.
Chapter 21
XXII.1 Do not say: “Find me a strong superior,
For a man in your town has injured me”;
Do not say: “Find me a protector,
For one who hates me has injured me.”
5 Indeed you do not know the plans of god,
And should not weep for tomorrow;
Settle in the arms of the god,
Your silence will overthrow them.
The crocodile that makes no sound,
10 Dread of it is ancient.
Do not empty your belly to everyone,
And thus destroy respect of you;
Broadcast not your words to others,
Nor join with one who bares his heart.
15 Better is one whose speech is in his belly
Than he who tells it to cause harm.
One does not run to reach success,
One does not move to spoil it.
Chapter 22
20 Do not provoke your adversary,
So as to <make> him tell his thoughts;
Do not leap to come before him,
XXIII.1 When you do not see his doings.
First gain insight from his answer,
Then keep still and you’ll succeed.
Leave it to him to empty his belly,
5 Know how to sleep, he’ll be found out.
❐Grasp his legs,❒ do not harm him,
Be wary of him, do not ignore him.
Indeed you do not know the plans of god,
And should not weep for tomorrow;
10 Settle in the arms of the god,
Your silence will overthrow them.
Chapter 23
Do not eat in the presence of an official
And then set your mouth before <him>;
15 If you are sated pretend to chew,
Content yourself with your saliva.
Look at the bowl that is before you,
And let it serve your needs.
An official is great in his office,
20 As a well is rich in drawings of water.
Chapter 24
Do not listen to an official’s reply indoors
XXIV.1 In order to repeat it to another outside.
Do not let your word be carried outside,
Lest your heart be aggrieved.
The heart of man is a gift of god,
5 Beware of neglecting it.
The man at the side of an official,
His name should not be known.
Chapter 25
Do not laugh at a blind man,
Nor tease a dwarf,
10 Nor cause hardship for the lame.
Don’t tease a man who is in the hand of the god,
Nor be angry with him for his failings.
Man is clay and straw,
The god is his builder.
15 He tears down, he builds up daily,
He makes a thousand poor by his will,
He makes a thousand men into chiefs,
When he is in his hour of life.
Happy is he who reaches the west,
20 When he is safe in the hand of the god.
Chapter 26
Do not sit down in the beer–house
XXV.1 In order to join one greater than you,
Be he a youth great through his office,
Or be he an elder through birth.
Befriend a man of your own measure,
5 Re is helpful from afar.
If you see one greater than you outdoors,
Walk behind him respectfully;
Give a hand to an elder sated with beer,
Respect him as his children would.
10 The arm is not hurt by being bared,
The back is not broken by bending it.
A man does not lose by speaking sweetly,
Nor does he gain if his speech bristles.
The pilot who sees from afar,
15 He will not wreck his boat.
Chapter 27
Do not revile one older than you,
He has seen Re before you;
Let <him> not report you to the Aten at his rising,
20 Saying: “A youth has reviled an old man.”
Very painful before Pre
XXVI.1 Is a youth who reviles an elder.
Let him beat you while your hand is on your chest,
Let him revile you while you are silent;
If next day you come before him,
5 He will give you food in plenty.
A dog’s food is from its master,
It barks to him who gives it.
Chapter 28
Do not pounce on a widow when you find her in the fields
10 And then fail to be patient with her reply.
Do not refuse your oil jar to a stranger,
Double it before your brothers.
God prefers him who honors the poor
To him who worships the wealthy.
Chapter 29
Do not prevent people from crossing the river,
If you stride freely in the ferry.
When you are given an oar in the midst of the deep,
Bend your arms and take it.
20 It is no crime before the god,
XXVII.1 ❐If the passenger is not passed up❒
Don’t make yourself a ferry on the river
And then strain to seek its fare;
Take the fare from him who is wealthy,
5 And let pass him who is poor.
Chapter 30
Look to these thirty chapters,
They inform, they educate;
They are the foremost of all books,
10 They make the ignorant wise.
If they are read to the ignorant,
He is cleansed through them.
Be filled with them, put them in your heart,
And become a man who expounds them,
15 One who expounds as a teacher.
The scribe who is skilled in his office,
He is found worthy to be a courtier.
Colophon
That is its end.
XXVIII.1 Written by Senu, son of the divine father Pemu.
REFERENCES
Text: Budge 1923:9–18 and 41–51 and pls. 1–14; Lange 1925. Translation: Erman 1924b cols 241–252; Budge 1924:93–234; Griffith 1926:191–231; Lexa 1929:14–49; von Bissing 1955:80–90; ANET 421–424 (excerpts); Simpson, 1972:241–265; Grumach 1972; Lichtheim AEL 2:146–163. Discussion: Erman 1924 no.15; Simpson 1926:232–239; Humbert 1929 ch. 2; Williams 1961:100–106; Peterson 1966:120–128 and pls. xxxi-xxxiA (the Stockholm fragment); Posener 1966:45–62 and pls. 1–2 (the three tablets); Anthes 1970:9–18; Posener 1973:129–135; Loprieno 1980:47–76; Ruffle 1977:29–68.
DUA-KHETY OR THE SATIRE ON THE TRADES (1.48)
Miriam Lichtheim
Like the other Instructions, this work has a prologue and an epilogue which frame the actual teaching and set its stage. A father conducts his young son to the residence in order to place him in school, and during the journey he instructs him in the duties and rewards of the scribal profession. In order to stress the amenities and advantages that accrue to the successful scribe, he contrasts the scribal career with the hardships of other trades and professions, eighteen of which are described in the most unflattering terms.
Ever since Maspero called this Instruction “Satire des Métiers,” scholars have understood it to be a satire, that is to say, a deliberately derisive characterization of all trades other than the scribal profession. Helck, however, in his new edition of the text has denied its satiric character and has claimed it to be a wholly serious, non–humorous work. I continue to think of it as a satire. What are the stylistic means of satire? Exaggeration and a lightness of tone designed to induce laughter and a mild contempt. Our text achieves its satirical effects by exaggerating the true hardships of the professions described, and by suppressing all their positive and rewarding aspects.
If it were argued that the exaggerations were meant to be taken seriously we would have to conclude that the scribal profession practiced deliberate deception out of a contempt for manual labor so profound as to be unrelieved by humor. Such a conclusion is, however, belied by all the literary and pictorial evidence. For tomb reliefs and texts alike breathe joy and pride in the accomplishments of labor. Moreover, the principal didactic works, such as Ptahhotep and the Eloquent Peasant, teach respect for all labor.
In short, the unrelievedly negative descriptions of the laboring professions are examples of humor in the service of literary satire. The result is obtained through unflattering comparisons and through exaggerations that rise to outright fabrications. What if not a fabrication for the sake of caricature is a bird–catcher who does not have a net — the very tool of his trade? What if not a caricature is a potter who is compared to a grubbing pig, a cobbler whose hides are termed “corpses,” a courier terrorized out of his wits by the dangers of the road, and a fisherman blinded by his fear of crocodiles?
The text is preserved entirely in P. Sallier II, and partially in P. Anastasi VII (both in the British Museum), both of which were written by the same Nineteenth Dynasty scribe. Small portions are preserved on an Eighteenth Dynasty writing board in the Louvre, the Eighteenth Dynasty P. Amherst in the Pierpont Morgan Library, P. Chester Beatty XIX of the British Museum, and numerous, mostly Ramesside, ostraca.
Though ample, the textual transmission is exceedingly corrupt. Helck’s comprehensive new edition has advanced the understanding considerably. But the corruptions are so numerous and so extreme that there remains much room for differing conjectures and interpretations.
(3.9) Beginning of the Instruction made by the man of Sile, whose name is ❐Dua–khety❒, for his son, called Pepi, as he journeyed south (4.1) to the residence, to place him in the school for scribes, among the sons of magistrates, with the elite of the residence. He said to him:
I have seen many beatings —
Set your heart on books!
I watched those seized for labor —
There’s nothing better than books!
It’s like a boat on water.
Read the end of the Kemit–Book,
You’ll find this saying there:
A scribe at whatever post in town,
He will not suffer in it;
As he fills another’s need,
He will ❐not lack rewards❒.
I don’t see a calling like it
Of which this saying could be (5) said.
I’ll make you love scribedom more than yourmother,
I’ll make its beauties stand before you;
It’s the greatest of all callings,
There’s none like it in the land.
Barely grown, still a child,
He is greeted, sent on errands,
Hardly returned he wears a gown.
I never saw a sculptor as envoy,
Nor is a goldsmith ever sent;
But I have seen the smith at work
At the opening of his furnace;
With fingers like claws of a crocodile
He stinks more than fish roe.
The carpenter who wields an adze,
He is wearier than a field–laborer;
His field is the timber, his hoe the adze.
There is no end to his labor,
He does more (5.1) than his arms can do,
Yet at night he kindles light.
The jewel–maker bores with his chisel
In hard stone of all kinds;
When he has finished the inlay of the eye,
His arms are spent, he’s weary;
Sitting down when the sun goes down,
His knees and back are cramped.
The barber barbers till nightfall,
He betakes himself to town,
He sets himself up in his corner,
He moves from street to street,
Looking for someone to barber.
He strains his arms to fill his belly,
(5) Like the bee that eats as it works.
The reed–cutter travels to the Delta to get arrows;
When he has done more than his arms can do,
Mosquitoes have slain him,
Gnats have slaughtered him,
He is quite worn out.
The potter is under the soil,
Though as yet among the living;
He grubs in the mud more than a pig,
In order to fire his pots.
His clothes are stiff with clay,
His girdle is in shreds;
If air enters his nose,
It comes straight from the fire.
He makes a pounding with his feet,
And is himself crushed;
He grubs the yard of every house
And roams the public places.
(6.1) I’ll describe to you also the mason:
His loins give him pain;
Though he is out in the wind,
He works without a cloak;
His loincloth is a twisted rope
And a string in the rear.
His arms are spent from exertion,
Having mixed all kinds of dirt;
When he eats bread [with] his fingers,
❐He has washed at the same time❒.
The carpenter also suffers much
…
The room measures ten by six cubits.
A month passes after the beams are laid,
…
And all its work is done.
(5) The food which he gives to his household,
It does not ❐suffice❒ for his children.
The gardener carries a yoke,
His shoulders are bent as with age;
There’s a swelling on his neck
And it festers.
In the morning he waters vegetables,
The evening he spends with the herbs,
While at noon he has toiled in the orchard.
He works himself to death
More than all other professions.
The farmer wails more than the guinea fowl,
His voice is louder than a raven’s;
His fingers are swollen
And stink to excess.
He is weary …
… (7.1) …
He is well if one’s well among lions.
…
When he reaches home at night,
The march has worn him out.
The weaver in the workshop,
He is worse off than a woman;
With knees against his chest,
He cannot breathe air.
If he skips a day of weaving,
He is beaten fifty strokes;
He gives food to the doorkeeper,
To let him see the light of day.
The arrow–maker suffers much
As he goes out (5) to the desert;
More is what he gives his donkey
Than the work it does for him.
Much is what he gives the herdsmen,
So they’ll put him on his way.
When he reaches home at night,
The march has worn him out.
The courier goes into the desert,
Leaving his goods to his children;
Fearful of lions and Asiatics,
He knows himself (only) when he’s in Egypt.
When he reaches home at night,
The march has worn him out;
Be his home of cloth or brick,
His return is joyless.
The ❐stoker❒, his fingers are foul,
Their smell is that of corpses;
His eyes are inflamed by much smoke,
(8.1) He cannot get rid of his dirt.
He spends the day cutting reeds,
His clothes are loathsome to him.
The cobbler suffers much
Among his vats of oil;
He is well if one’s well with corpses,
What he bites is leather.
The washerman washes on the shore
With the crocodile as neighbor;
❐“Father, leave the flowing water,”❒
Say his son, his daughter,
❐It is not a job that satisfies❒
…
His food is mixed with dirt,
No limb of his is clean
❐He is given❒ (5) women’s clothes,
…
He weeps as he spends the day at his wash-board
…
One says to him, “Soiled linen for you,”
…
The bird–catcher suffers much
As he watches out for birds;
When the swarms pass over him,
He keeps saying, “Had I a net!”
But the god grants it not,
And he’s angry with his lot.
I’ll speak of the fisherman also,
His is the worst of all the jobs;
He labors on the river,
Mingling with crocodiles.
When the time of reckoning comes,
He is full of lamentations;
He does not say, “There’s a (9.1) crocodile,”
Fear has made him blind.
❐Coming from❒ the flowing water
He says, “Mighty god!”
See, there’s no profession without a boss,
Except for the scribe; he is the boss.
Hence if you know writing,
It will do better for you
Than those professions I’ve set before you,
Each more wretched than the other.
A peasant is not called a man,
Beware of it!
Lo, what I do in journeying to the residence,
Lo, I do it for love of you.
The day in school will profit you
Its works are for ever …
…
I’ll tell you also other things,
So as to teach you knowledge.
Such as: if a quarrel breaks out,
Do not approach the contenders!
If you are chided …
And don’t know how to repel the heat,
❐Call the listeners to witness❒,
And delay the answer.
When you walk behind officials,
Follow at a proper distance.
When you enter a man’s house,
And he’s busy with someone before you,
Sit with your hand over your mouth.
Do not ask him for anything,
Only do as he tells you,
Beware of rushing to the table!
Be weighty and very dignified,
Do not speak of (10.1) secret things,
Who hides his thought shields himself.
Do not say things recklessly,
When you sit with one who’s hostile.
If you leave the schoolhouse
When midday is called,
And go roaming in the streets,
❐All will scold you in the end❒.
When an official sends you with a message,
Tell it as he told it,
Don’t omit, don’t add to it.
He who neglects to praise,
His name will not endure;
He who is skilled in all his conduct,
From him nothing is hidden,
He is not ❐opposed❒ anywhere.
Do not tell lies (5) against your mother,
The magistrates abhor it.
The descendant who does what is good,
His actions all emulate the past.
Do not consort with a rowdy,
It harms you when one hears of it.
If you have eaten three loaves,
Drunk two jugs of beer,
And the belly is not sated, restrain it!
When another eats, don’t stand there,
Beware of rushing to the table!
It is good if you are sent out often,
And hear the magistrates speak.
You should acquire the manner of the well-born,
As you follow in their steps.
The scribe is regarded as one who hears,
For the hearer becomes a doer.
You should rise when you are addressed,
Your feet should hurry when you go;
❐Do not❒ (11.1) ❐trust❒.
Associate with men of distinction,
Befriend a man of your generation.
Lo, I have set you on god’s path,
A scribe’s Renenet is on his shoulder
On the day he is born.
When he attains the council chamber,
The court …
Lo, no scribe is short of food
And of riches from the palace.
The Meskhenet assigned to the scribe,
She promotes him in the council.
Praise god for your father, your mother,
Who set you on the path of life!
This is what I put before you,
Your children and their children.
Colophon
(5) It has come to a happy conclusion.
REFERENCES
Text: Budge 1910:pls. 65–73. Brunner 1944; Helck 1970. Translation: Erman 1927:67–72; Van de Walle 1949:244–256; ANET 432–434; Lichtheim AEL 1:184–192; Studies: Piankoff 1933:51–74; Théodoridès 1958–1960:39–69; Van de Walle 1947:50–72;11; Seibert 1967:99–192.
4. LOVE POEMS
The extant Egyptian love song texts all date from the 19th dynasty (ca. 1305–1200 BCE) and the early 20th dynasty (ca. 1200–1150 BCE). The songs’ composition too seems to date from the Ramesside period. They are collected on large papyri or inscribed on ostraca. They are sometimes labelled “Entertainment” (lit. “diverting the heart”) and probably served to entertain guests at banquets. Numerous tomb murals show musicians singing to the guests and urging them to “divert” their hearts.
The sex of the speakers is indicated by grammatical gender. They all seem to be adolescents living under their parents’ control. For a hieroglyphic transcription, translation, commentary, see Fox (1985). The numbering in the following is according to the numeration in Fox 1985 (see 5–7). Some of the following are stanzas extracted from longer songs. The translation below presupposes some minor emendations and supplies some pronouns and minor connectives.
PAPYRUS HARRIS 500 (1.49)
Michael V. Fox
BM 10060 (HPBM 2, pls. XLI-XLVI). The manuscript is a sort of literary anthology, containing two stories (“The Doomed Prince” and “The Capture of Joppa”), a mortuary song (the “Harper’s Song”) and three groups of love songs.
(Girl) (Number 4)
My heart is not yet done with your love,
my wolf cub!
Your liquor is your lovemaking. b
I will not abandon it
until blows drive me away
to spend my days in the marshes, (or)
to the land of Syria with sticks and rods,
to the land of Nubia with palms,
to the highlands with switches,
to the lowlands with cudgels.
I will not listen to their advice.
(Boy) (Number 6)
I will lie down inside,
and then I will feign illness.
Then my neighbors will enter to see,
and then my sister
will come with them.
She’ll put the doctors to shame
for she (alone) will understand my illness. c
(Girl) (Number 10)
The voice of the goose cries out,
as he’s trapped by the bait.
Your love restrains me,
so that I can’t release it.
I’ll take my nets,
but what shall I say to Mother,
to whom I go every day
laden down with birds?
I set no trap today —
your love captured me.
(Girl) (Number 11)
The goose soars and alights:
while the ordinary birds circle,
he has disturbed the garden.
…
I am excited (?) by your love alone.
My heart is in balance with your heart.
May I never be far from your beauty!
(Girl) (Number 12)
I have departed [from my brother].
[Now when I think of] your love,
my heart stands still within me.
When I behold sw[eet] cakes,
[they seem like] salt.
Pomegranate wine, (once) sweet in my mouth —
it is (now) like the gall of birds.
The scent of your nose alone d
is what revives my heart.
I have obtained forever and ever
what Amun has granted me.
(Girl) (Number 13)
The most beautiful thing has come to pass!
My heart [desires] (to tend)
your property (?)
as the mistress of your house,
while your arm rests on my arm,
for my love has surrounded you.
I say to my heart within me in prayer:
[“Give me] my prince tonight,
or I am like one who lies in her grave!”
For are you not health and life itself?
The approach [of your face
will give me j]oy for your health,
for my heart seeks you.
The Beginning of the Song of Entertainment
(Girl) (Number 17)
Mḫmḫ–flowers:
my heart is in balance with yours.
For you I’ll do what it wills,
when I’m in your embrace.
It is my prayer that paints my eyes.
Seeing you has brightened my eyes.
I’ve drawn near you to see your love,
O prince of my heart!
How lovely is my hour (with you)!
This hour flows forth for me forever —
it began when I lay with you.
In sorrow and in joy,
you have exalted my heart.
Do not [leave] me.
(Girl) (Number 18)
In it are sʿʾm–trees;
before them one is exalted:
I am your favorite girl.
I am yours like the field
planted with flowers
and with all sorts of fragrant plants. e
Pleasant is the canal within it,
which your hand scooped out,
while we cooled ourselves in the north wind:
a lovely place for strolling about,
with your hand upon mine!
My body is satisfied,
and my heart rejoices
in our walking about together.
To hear your voice is pomegranate wine (to me):
I draw life from hearing it.
Could I see you with every glance,
it would be better for me
than to eat or to drink.
CAIRO LOVE SONGS (1.50)
(Deir el-Medineh 1266 + Cairo cat. 25218; Posener 1972)
Michael V. Fox
The following are stanzas from the second of two seven-stanza love songs (numbers 21A-21G) written on a vase, now shattered.
(Boy) (Number 21A)
If only I were her Nubian maid,
her attendant in secret!
She brings her [a bowl of] mandragoras …
It is in her hand,
while she gives pleasure.
In other words:
she would grant me
the hue of her whole body.
(Boy) (Number 21B)
If only I were the laundryman
of my sister’s linen garment
even for one month!
I would be strengthened
by grasping [the clothes]
that touch her body.
For it would be I who washed out the moringa oils
that are in her kerchief.
Then I’d rub my body
with her cast–off garments,
and she …
[Oh I would be in] joy and delight,
my [bo]dy vigorous!
(Boy) (Number 21C)
If only I were her little seal–ring,
the keeper of her finger!
I would see her love
each and every day, …
[and it would be I who] stole her heart …
PAPYRUS CHESTER BEATTY I (1.51)
(Gardiner 1931)
Michael V. Fox
A large papyrus containing three groups of love songs, the tale of “Horus and Seth,” two hymns to the king, and a short business note.
From Pap. Chester Betty I, C1,1-C5,2; the first group of love songs.
The Beginning of the Sayings of the Great Entertainer
(Boy) (Number 31)
One alone is my sister, having no peer:
more gracious than all other women.
Behold her, like Sothis rising
at the beginning of a good year:
shining, precious, white of skin,
lovely of eyes when gazing.
Sweet her lips when speaking:
she has no excess of words.
Long of neck, white of breast,
her hair true lapis lazuli.
Her arms surpass gold,
her fingers are like lotuses.
Full (?) her derrière, narrow (?) her waist,
her thighs carry on her beauties.
Lovely of walk when she strides on the ground,
she has captured my heart in her embrace.
She makes the heads of all men
turn about when seeing her.
Fortunate is whoever embraces her —
he is like the foremost of lovers.
Her coming forth appears
like (that of) the one yonder — the Unique One. h
(Girl) (Number 32)
Second Stanza
My brother roils my heart with his voice,
making me take ill.
Though he is among the neighbors of my mother’s house,
I cannot go to him.
Mother is right to command me thus:
“Avoid seeing him!”
Yet my heart is vexed when he comes to mind,
for love of him has captured me.
He is senseless of heart —
and I am just like him!
He does not know my desires to embrace him,
or he would send word to my mother.
O brother, I am decreed for you
by the Golden One.
Come to me that I may see your beauty!
May father and mother be glad!
May all people rejoice in you together,
rejoice in you, my brother!
…
(Girl) (Number 34)
Fourth Stanza
My heart quickly scurries away
when I think of your love.
It does not let me act like a (normal) person —
it has leapt from its place.
It does not let me don a tunic;
I cannot put on my cloak.
I cannot apply paint to my eyes;
I cannot anoint myself at all!
“Don’t stop until you get inside” —
thus it says to me, whenever I think of him.
O my heart, don’t make me foolish!
Why do you act crazy?
Sit still, cool down, until (my) brother comes to you,
when I shall do many such things (?).
Don’t let people say about me:
“This woman has collapsed out of love.”
Stand firm whenever you think of him,
my heart, and scurry not away.
…
(Girl) (Number 36)
Sixth Stanza
I passed close by his house,
and found his door ajar.
My brother was standing beside his mother,
and with him all his kin.
Love of him captures the heart
of all who stride upon the way —
a precious youth without peer!
A brother excellent of character!
He gazed at me when I passed by,
but I exult by myself.
How joyful my heart in rejoicing,
my brother, since I (first) beheld you!
If only mother knew my heart —
she would go inside for a while.
O Golden One, put that in her heart!
Then I could hurry to my brother
and kiss him before his company,
and not be ashamed because of anyone. i
I would be happy to have them see
that you know me,
and I’d hold festival to my goddess.
My heart leaps up to go forth
to make me gaze on my brother tonight.
How lovely it is to pass by!
(Boy) (Number 37)
Seventh Stanza
Seven whole days I have not seen my sister.
Illness has invaded me,
my limbs have grown heavy,
and I barely sense my own body.
Should the master physicians come to me,
their medicines could not ease my heart.
The lector–priests have no (good) method,
because my illness cannot be diagnosed.
Telling me, “Here she is!” — that’s what will revive me.
Her name — that’s what will get me up.
The coming and going of her messengers —
that’s what will revive my heart.
More potent than any medicine is my sister for me;
she is more powerful for me than the Compendium.
Her coming in from outside is my amulet.
I see her — then I become healthy.
She opens her eyes — my limbs grow young.
She speaks — then I become strong.
I hug her — and she drives illness from me.
But she has left me for seven days.
This song is from another group of seven independent songs on the Papyrus Chester Beatty I (ro. 16, 9–17:13; nos. 41–47) that are ascribed to the scribe Nakhtsobek.
(Boy) (Number 43)
How skilled is she — my sister — at casting the lasso,
yet she’ll draw in no cattle!
With her hair she lassos me,
with her eye she pulls me in,
with her thighs she binds,
with her seal she sets the brand.
OSTRACON GARDINER 304 (1.52)
Recto (HO I, 38)
Michael V. Fox
A number of ostraca, mostly written as school exercises, hold love songs or phrases typical of love songs. This ostracon dates to the reign of Ramses III (ca. 1182–1151 BCE).
(Boy) (Number 54)
My sister’s love is in the …
Her necklace is of flowers;
her bones are reeds.
Her little seal–ring is [on her finger],
her lotus in her hand.
I kiss [her] before everyone,
that they may see my love. j
Indeed it is she who captures my heart,
when she looks at me,
I am refreshed.
REFERENCES
Texts and translations: Fox 1985; Gardiner 1931; Schott 1950.
5. PSEUDEPIGRAPHA
THE FAMINE STELA (1.53)
(On Sehel Island)
Miriam Lichtheim
The inscription is carved in thirty–two columns on the face of a granite rock where it was given the shape of a rectangular stela. The rock face is split by a broad horizontal fissure, which already existed when the inscription was carved. After the carving, further ruptures occurred in the rock, and they have caused a number of textual lacunae. Above the text is a relief scene showing King Djoser offering to Khnum–Re, Satis, and Anukis, the gods of the cataract region.
The stela purports to be a decree by King Djoser of the Third Dynasty addressed to a “Governor of the South” at Elephantine. In it the king informs the governor that, distressed over the country’s seven–year famine, he had consulted a priest of Imhotep. After a study of the sacred books, the priest had informed him in detail about the temple of Khnum at Elephantine, and how Khnum controlled the inundation. The priest had also named to him all the minerals, precious stones, and building stones found in the border region. In the following night the king had seen Khnum in his dream, and the god had promised him an end to the famine. In gratitude to the god, the king now issues a decree granting to the temple of Khnum of Elephantine a share of all the revenue derived from the region extending from Elephantine south to Takompso, a distance of “twelve iter.” In addition, a share of all Nubian imports was to be given to the temple. The governor was charged with carrying out the decree.
In its present form, the text is undoubtedly a work of the Ptolemaic period. Some scholars have surmised that it was based on a genuine Old Kingdom decree from the time of Djoser. Others take it to be a complete fiction. In any case, the text puts forth a claim to revenue on behalf of the Khnum temple of Elephantine.
Who stood behind this claim? According to P. Barguet, it was Ptolemy V who issued the decree as a means of proclaiming Ptolemaic control of this Nubian region. H. de Meulenaere countered this suggestion by asking whether the “governor of the south,” who bore the non–Egyptian name Mesir, may not have been a Nubian chief ruling the area in defiance of the Ptolemaic king. The most plausible hypothesis, it seems to me, is the one that sees the inscription as the work of the priesthood of the Khnum temple, who were anxious to strengthen their privileges in the face of the encroaching claims made by the clergy of Isis of Philae.
The extent of the “12–iter land” or, Dodekaschoinos, has also been much discussed, for the location of Takompso, its southern limit, is not known, and the length of the iter appears to have varied. The problem now seems to have been settled in favor of an iter usually averaging 10.5 km, except for a much shorter iter indicated by the boundary stelae of Akhenaten at El–Amarna. Thus, the “12–iter land” would designate the northern half of Lower Nubia, extending south from Elephantine for a length of about eighty miles. Barguet’s good edition has greatly advanced the understanding of this difficult text. There remain a number of problems and uncertainties.
(1) Year 18 of Horus: Neterkhet; the King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Neterkhet; Two Ladies: Neterkhet; Gold-Horus: Djoser; under the Count, Prince, Governor of the domains of the South, Chief of the Nubians in Yebu, Mesir. There was brought to him this royal decree. To let you know:
I was in mourning on my throne,
Those of the palace were in grief,
My heart was in great affliction,
Because Hapy had failed to come in time
In a period of seven years. a
Grain was scant,
Kernels were dried up,
Scarce was every kind of food.
Every man robbed (3) his twin,
Those who entered did not go.
Children cried,
Youngsters fell,
The hearts of the old were grieving;
Legs drawn up, they hugged the ground,
Their arms clasped about them.
Courtiers were needy,
Temples were shut,
Shrines covered with dust,
Everyone was in distress.
I directed my heart to turn to the past,
I consulted one of the staff of the Ibis,
The chief lector–priest of Imhotep,
Son of Ptah South–of–his–Wall;
“In which place is Hapy born?
Which is the town of the Sinuous one?
Which god dwells there?
That he might join with (5) me.”
He stood “I shall go to Mansion–of–the–Net,
❐it is designed to support a man in his deeds❒;
I shall enter the House of Life,
Unroll the Souls of Re,
I shall be guided by them.”
He departed, he returned to me quickly,
He let me know the flow of Hapy,
[His shores] and all the things they contain.
He disclosed to me the hidden wonders,
To which the ancestors had made their way,
And no king had equaled them since.
He said to me:
“There is a town in the midst of the deep,
Surrounded by Hapy, (7) Yebu by name;
It is first of the first,
First nome to Wawat,
Earthly elevation, celestial hill,
Seat of Re when he prepares
To give life to every face.
Its temple’s name is ‘Joy–of–life,’
‘Twin Caverns’ is the water’s name,
They are the breasts that nourish all.
It is the house of sleep of Hapy,
He grows young in it in [his time],
[It is the place whence] he brings the flood:
Bounding up he copulates,
As man copulates with woman,
Renewing his manhood with joy;
Coursing twenty–eight cubits high,
He passes Sema–behdet (9) at seven.
Khnum is the god [who rules] there,
[He is enthroned above the deep],
His sandals resting on the flood;
He holds the door bolt in his hand,
Opens the gate as he wishes.
He is eternal there as Shu,
Bounty–giver, Lord–of–fields,
So his name is called.
He has reckoned the land of the South and the North,
To give parts to every god;
It is he who governs barley, [emmer],
Fowl and fish and all one lives on.
Cord and scribal board are there,
The pole is there with its beam
…
(11) His temple opens southeastward,
Re rises in its face every day;
Its water rages on its south for an iter,
A wall against the Nubians each day.
There is a mountain massif in its eastern region,
With precious stones and quarry stones of all kinds,
All the things sought for building temples
In Egypt, South and North,
And stalls for sacred animals,
And palaces for kings,
All statues too that stand in temples and in shrines.”
“Their gathered products are set before the face of Khnum and around him; likewise (13) tall plants and flowers of all kinds that exist between Yebu and Senmut, and are there on the east and the west.”
“There is in the midst of the river — covered by water at its annual flood — a place of relaxation for every man who works the stones on its two sides.”
“There is in the river, before this town of Yebu, a central elevation of difficult body which is called grf-ʾbw.”
“Learn the names of the gods and goddesses of the temple of Khnum: Satis, Anukis, Hapy, Shu, Geb, Nut, Osiris, Horus, Isis, Nephthys.”
“Learn the names of (15) the stones that are there, lying in the borderland: those that are in the east and the west, those [on the shores] of Yebu’s canal, those in Yebu, those in the east and west, and those in the river: bẖn, mtʾy, mḫtbtb, rʿgs, wtšy in the east; prḏn25 in the west; tšy in the west and in the river.”
“The names of the precious stones of the quarries that are in the upper region — some among them at a distance of four iter — are: gold, silver, copper, iron, lapis lazuli, turquoise, ṯḥnt, red jasper, ḳʿ, mnw, emerald,30 tm-ʾiḳr. In addition, nšmt, tʾ-mḥy, ḥmʾgt, (17) ibht, bḳs-ʿnḫ, green eye–paint, black eye–paint, carnelian,37 shrt, mm, and ochre40 are within this township.”
When I heard what was there my heart ❐was guided❒. Having heard of the flood <I> opened the wrapped books. <I> made a purification; <I> conducted a procession of the hidden ones; <I> made a complete offering of bread, beer, oxen, and fowl, and all good things for the gods and goddesses in Yebu whose names had been pronounced.
As I slept in peace, I found the god standing before me. <I> propitiated him by adoring him and praying to him. He revealed himself to me with kindly face; he said:
“I am Khnum, your maker!
My arms are around you,
To steady your body,
To (19) safeguard your limbs.
I bestow on you stones upon stones,
❐That were not found❒ before,
Of which no work was made,
For building temples,
Rebuilding ruins,
Inlaying statues’ eyes.
For I am the master who makes,
I am he who made himself,
Exalted Nun, who first came forth,
Hapy who hurries at will;
Fashioner of everybody,
Guide of each in his hours,
Tatenen, father of gods,
Great Shu, high in heaven!
The shrine I dwell in has two lips,
When I open up the well,
I know Hapy hugs the field,
A hug that fills each nose with life,
(21) For when hugged the field is reborn!
I shall make Hapy gush for you,
No year of lack and want anywhere,
Plants will grow weighed down by their fruit;
With Renutet ordering all,
All things are supplied in millions!
I shall let your people fill up,
They shall grasp together with you!
Gone will be the hunger years,
Ended the dearth in their bins.
Egypt’s people will come striding,
Shores will shine in the excellent flood,
Hearts will be happier than ever before!”
The Donation
I awoke with speeding heart. Freed of fatigue I made (23) this decree on behalf of my father Khnum. A royal offering to Khnum, lord of the cataract region and chief of Nubia:
In return for what you have done for me, I offer you Manu as western border, Bakhu as eastern border, from Yebu to Kemsat,46 being twelve iter on the east and the west, consisting of fields and pastures, of the river, and of every place in these miles.
All tenants who cultivate the fields, and the vivifiers who irrigate the shores and all the new lands that are in these miles, their harvests shall be taken to your granary, in addition to (25) your share which is in Yebu.
All fishermen, all hunters, who catch fish and trap birds and all kinds of game, and all who trap lions in the desert — I exact from them one–tenth of the take of all of these, and all the young animals born of the females in these miles [in their totality].
One shall give the branded animals for all burnt offerings and daily sacrifices; and one shall give one–tenth b of gold, ivory, ebony, carob wood, and ochre, carnelian, shrt, diw-plants, nfw-plants, all kinds of timber, (being) all the things brought by the Nubians of Khent–hen–nefer (to) Egypt, and (by) every man (27) ❐who comes with arrears from them.❒
No officials are to issue orders in these places or take anything from them, for everything is to be protected for your sanctuary.
I grant you this domain with (its) stones and good soil. No person there ——- anything from it. But the scribes that belong to you and the overseers of the South shall dwell there as accountants, listing everything that the kiry–workers, and the smiths, and the master craftsmen, and the goldsmiths, and the …, (29) and the Nubians, and the crew of Apiru, and all corvee labor who fashion the stones, shall give of gold, silver, copper, lead, baskets of …, firewood, the things that every man who works with them shall give as dues, namely one–tenth of all these. And there shall be given one–tenth of the precious stones and quarrying stones that are brought from the mountain side, being the stones of the east.
And there shall be an overseer who measures the quantities of gold, silver, copper, and genuine precious stones, the things which the sculptors shall assign to the gold house, (31) (to) fashion the sacred images and to refit the statues that were damaged, and any implements lacking there.
Everything shall be placed in the storehouse until one fashions anew, when one knows everything that is lacking in your temple, so that it shall be as it was in the beginning.
Engrave this decree on a stela of the sanctuary in writing, for it happened as said, (and) on a tablet, so that the divine writings shall be on them in the temple twice. He who spits (on it) deceitfully shall be given over to punishment.
The overseers of the priests and the chief of all the temple personnel shall make my name abide in the temple of Khnum–Re, lord of Yebu, every mighty.
REFERENCES
Text: Brugsch 1891; Barguet 1953a. Translation: Roeder 1915:177–184. Translation of excerpts: Vandier 1936:38–44 and 132–139; ANET 31–32. Studies: Sethe 1901; 1904:58–62; Schubart 1910:154–157; de Meulenaere 1957:33–34; Brunner 1967:cols. 2255–2256. Wildung, 1969:85–91; Schwab–Schlott 1969; 1972:109–113; 1975:cols. 1112–1113. Lichtheim 1977:142–144; AEL 3:94–103; Harris 1961.
THE LEGEND OF THE POSSESSED PRINCESS (“BENTRESH STELA”) (1.54)
(From Karnak, Louvre C 284)
Miriam Lichtheim
A stela of black sandstone, 2.×.09 m, found in 1829 in a small, no longer extant, Ptolemaic sanctuary near the temple of Khons erected at Karnak by Ramses III. The stela was brought to Paris in 1844. The scene in the lunette shows King Ramses II offering incense before the bark of Khons–in–Thebes–Neferhotep. Behind the king, a priest offers incense before the smaller bark of Khons–the–Provider–in–Thebes. Below the scene is the text in twenty–eight horizontal lines.
Though made to appear as a monument of Ramses II, the stela is in fact a work of either the Persian or the Ptolemaic period. It tells a wondrous tale of healing performed by the Theban god Khons–the–Provider. If the tale had been written on papyrus it would rank with other stories told about the gods. But in the guise of a monument of Ramses II it possessed a propagandistic purpose. Just what the purpose was does not emerge very clearly. Was it meant to glorify the two principal manifestations of the Theban god Khons: Khons–the–Merciful (nfr-ḥtp) and Khons–the–Provider (pʾ ir sḫr)? Or did it project a rivalry between their two priesthoods? Was it also designed to recall the glory of Egypt’s native kings at a time of foreign — Persian or Ptolemaic — domination?
(1) Horus Mighty bull beautiful of crowns; Two Ladies abiding in kingship like Atum; Gold-Horus: Strong–armed smiter of the Nine Bows; the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands Usermare–sotpenre; the Son of Re, of his body: Ramesses beloved of Amun, lord of Thrones–of–the–Two–Lands, and of the Ennead, mistress of Thebes.
Good god, Amun’s son,
Offspring of Harakhti,
Glorious seed of the All–Lord,
Begotten by Kamutef,
King of Egypt, ruler of Red Lands,
Sovereign who seized the Nine Bows;
Whom victory was foretold as he came from the womb,
Whom valor was given while in the egg,
Bull firm of heart as he treads the arena,
Godly king going forth like Mont on victory day,
Great of strength like the Son of Nut!
When his majesty was in Nahrin according to his annual custom, the princes of every foreign land came bowing in peace to the might of his majesty from as far as the farthest marshlands. Their gifts of gold, silver, lapis lazuli, (5) turquoise, and every kind of plant of god’s land were on their backs, and each was outdoing his fellow. The prince of Bakhtan4 had also sent his gifts and had placed his eldest daughter in front of them, worshiping his majesty and begging life from him. The woman pleased the heart of his majesty greatly and beyond anything. So her titulary was established as Great Royal Wife Nefrure. When his majesty returned to Egypt, she did all that a queen does.
It happened in year 23, second month of summer, day 22, while his majesty was in Thebes-the-victorious, the mistress of cities, performing the rites for his father Amun–Re, lord of Thrones-of–the–Two–Lands, at his beautiful feast of Southern Ipet, his favorite place since the beginning, that one came to say to his majesty: “A messenger of the prince of Bakhtan has come with many gifts for the queen.” He was brought before his majesty with his gifts and said, saluting his majesty: “Hail to you, Sun of the Nine Bows! Truly, we live through you!” And kissing the ground before his majesty he spoke again before his majesty, saying “I have come to you, O King, my lord, on account of Bentresh,7 the younger sister of Queen Nefrure. A malady has seized her body. May your majesty send a learned man to see her!”
His majesty said: “Bring me the personnel of the House of Life and the council (10) of the residence.” They were ushered in to him immediately. His majesty said: “You have been summoned in order to hear this matter: bring me one wise of heart with fingers skilled in writing from among you.” Then the royal scribe Thothemheb came before his majesty, and his majesty ordered him to proceed to Bakhtan with the messenger.
The learned man reached Bakhtan. He found Bentresh to be possessed by a spirit; he found him to be an enemy whom one could fight. Then the prince of Bakhtan sent again to his majesty, saying: “O King, my lord, may your majesty command to send a god [to fight against this spirit!” The message reached] his majesty in year 26, first month of summer, during the feast of Amun while his majesty was in Thebes. His majesty reported to Khons–in–Thebes–Neferhotep, saying: “My good lord, I report to you about the daughter of the prince of Bakhtan.” Then Khons-in–Thebes–Neferhotep proceeded to Khons–the-Provider, the great god who expels disease demons.10 His majesty spoke to Khons–in–Thebes-Neferhotep: “My good lord, if you turn your face to (15) Khons–the–Provider, the great god who expels disease demons, he shall be dispatched to Bakhtan.” Strong approval twice. His majesty said: “Give your magical protection to him, and I shall dispatch his majesty to Bakhtan to save the daughter of the prince of Bakhtan.” Very strong approval by Khons–in–Thebes–Neferhotep. He made magical protection for Khons-the-Provider-in-Thebes four times. His majesty commanded to let Khons-the-Provider-in-Thebes proceed to the great bark with five boats and a chariot, and many horses from east and west.12 This god arrived in Bakhtan at the end of one year and five months. The prince of Bakhtan came with his soldiers and officials before Khons–the–Provider. He placed himself on his belly, saying: “You have come to us to be gracious to us, as commanded by the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Usermare–sotpenre!” Then the god proceeded to the place where Bentresh was. He made magical protection for the daughter of the prince of Bakhtan, and she became well instantly.
Then spoke the spirit who was with her to Khons-the–Provider–in–Thebes: “Welcome in peace, great god who expels disease demons! Bakhtan is your home, its people are your servants, I am your servant! (20) I shall go to the place from which I came, so as to set your heart at rest about that which you came for. May your majesty command to make a feast day with me and the prince of Bakhtan!” Then the god motioned approval to his priest, saying: “Let the prince of Bakhtan make a great offering before this spirit.”
Now while this took place between Khons–the-Provider–in–Thebes and the spirit, the prince of Bakhtan stood by with his soldiers and was very frightened. Then he made a great offering to Khons–the–Provider–in–Thebes and the spirit; and the prince of Bakhtan made a feast day for them. Then the spirit went in peace to where he wished, as commanded by Khons-the-Provider-in-Thebes. The prince of Bakhtan rejoiced very greatly together with everyone in Bakhtan.
Then he schemed with his heart, saying: “I will make the god stay here in Bakhtan. I will not let him go to Egypt.” So the god spent three years and nine months in Bakhtan. Then, as the prince of Bakhtan slept on his bed, he saw the god come out of his shrine as a falcon of gold and fly up to the sky toward Egypt. (25) He awoke in terror and said to the priest of Khons–the–Provider–in-Thebes: “The god is still here with us! He shall go to Thebes! His chariot shall go to Egypt!” Then the prince of Bakhtan let the god proceed to Egypt, having given him many gifts of every good thing and very many soldiers and horses.
They arrived in peace in Thebes. Khons–the-Provider–in–Thebes went to the house of Khons-in–Thebes–Neferhotep. He placed the gifts of every good thing which the prince of Bakhtan had given him before Khons–in–Thebes–Neferhotep, without giving anything to his (own) house. Khons–the–Provider–in–Thebes arrived in his house in peace in year 33, second month of winter, day 19, of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Usermare-sotpenre, given eternal life like Re.
REFERENCES
Text: Tresson 1933:57–78 and pl. i; de Buck 1948:106–109; Kitchen KRI 2:284–287. Translation: Lefebvre 1949:221–232; ANET 29–31; Brunner-Traut 1965:163–167; Bresciani 1969:533–536; Lichtheim AEL 3:90–94. Studies: Erman 1883:54–60; Spiegelberg 1906:181; Posener 1934:75–81; Lefebvre 1944:214–218; Donadoni 1957:47–50.
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HITTITE CANONICAL COMPOSITIONS
A. DIVINE FOCUS
1. MYTHS
ELKUNIRŠA AND AŠERTU (1.55)
Gary Beckman
Although the particular events of this tale are not known from the mythological tablets recovered at Ugarit, the story certainly belongs to the corpus of northern Syrian myths which they represent. This composition has come down to us in a number of fragments which originally belonged to two or three separate manuscripts, but only two portions of the text are well-enough preserved for connected translation. The Hittite translator has misunderstood the Canaanite phrase “El, Creator of Earth” as a simple divine name, which he has rendered as Elkunirša.
Fragment 1
(A i 1´-7´) (Ašertu said to Baal:) “[Get behind me, and I will get behind] you. I will press [you] down with [my] word. I will pierce [you] with [my] little spindle (?). I will stimulate (?) you […]” Baal heard (this) [and he] stood [up]. He came to the headwaters of the Euphrates River. [He came to] Elkunirša, husband of Ašertu. He entered the tent [of] Elkunirša.
(A i 8´-21´) [Elknunirša] saw Baal and asked him, “[Why] have you come?” Baal said, “When I came into your house, [just then] Ašertu sent girls to me (with the message): ‘Come sleep with me!’ I refused. She … me and said [as follows]: ‘Get behind me, and I will get behind you. I will press you down with my [word. I will pierce] you [with] my [little spindle (?)].’ On that account I have come, my father. I have not come to you [as] a messenger. I [have come] to you on my own behalf. Ašertu is rejecting your manhood. […] your wife. She keeps sending to me: ‘[Sleep with me]!’ ” Elkunirša [replied] to Baal: “Go, … her!… my [wife Ašertu]! Humiliate her!”
(A i 22´-27´) [Baal] heard the word [of Elkunirša] and he [went] to Ašertu. Baal said to Ašertu: “I have slain your seventy-seven [sons]. I have slain eighty-eight.” [When] Ašertu heard the humiliation, she was troubled in her soul and had mourning [women] take their places. She wailed for seven years. [The …] ate and drank for them (the sons).
Fragment 2
(A ii 1´-3´) (Ašertu said to Elkunirša:) “[…] I will press [down Baal with my word. I will pierce him with my little spindle (?). Then] I will sleep with you.” [Elkunirša] listened and said to his wife: “Come, [I will turn] Baal [over to you. Do] with him as you wish.”
(A ii 4´-16´) Astarte overheard these words and became a goblet in the hand of Elkunirša. She became an owl and perched on his wall. Astarte overheard the words which husband and wife spoke to one another. Elkunirša and his wife went to her bed and they slept together. Astarte flew like a bird across the desert. In the desert she found Baal, [and said] to him: “O Baal, [the husband (?)] of Ašertu […] Do not drink wine together [… do not …] against […] she (?) will seek […]”
It seems that despite Astarte’s warning Ašertu took her vengeance on Baal, for the remaining fragments of the text, which are very badly broken, discuss the treatment of various parts of Baal’s body, including his penis, tendons, and muscles, as well as his ritual purification. Also mentioned are the “Dark Earth,” the Hittite term for the Netherworld, and the Annunaki-deities, known from Mesopotamian texts as the rulers of this dismal portion of the universe. Thus it seems that Baal must have died and been brought back from the dead, an impression strengthened by the presence of the Mother-goddesses in this portion of the composition.
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 342; Fragment 1: A. KUB 36.35 i. B. KUB 36.34 i. Fragment 2: A. KUB 36.37 + KUB 31.118. B. KUB 12.61 ii. Literature: ANET 519; Bernabé 1987:127–29; Hoffner 1965; 1990:69–70; Laroche 1968b:25–30; Otten 1953.
THE STORM-GOD AND THE SERPENT (ILLUYANKA) (1.56)
Gary Beckman
The conflict between the Storm-god and the forces of chaos represented by the serpent (illuyanka- in Hittite) was the focus of two different tales known in second-millennium Anatolia, both of which served as etiological cult myths of the important Hittite festival called purulli, a term whose precise meaning remains unknown.
(A i 1–4) (This is) the text of the purulli (festival) for the […] of the Storm-god of Heaven, according to Kella, [the “anointed priest”] of the Storm-god of (the town of) Nerik: When they speak thus —
(A i 5–8) “Let the land grow and thrive, and let the land be secure!” — and when it (indeed) grows and thrives, then they perform the festival of purulli.
(A i 9–11) When the Storm-god and the serpent came to grips in (the town of) Kiškilušša, the serpent smote the Storm-god.
(A i 12–14) (Thereafter) the Storm-god summoned all the gods (saying): “Come in! (The goddess) Inara has prepared a feast!”
(A i 15–18) She prepared everything in great quantity — vessels of wine, vessels of (the drink) marnuwan, and vessels of (the drink) walḫi. In the vessels [she made] an abundance.
(A i 19–20) Then [Inara] went [to] (the town of) Ziggarata and encountered Ḫupašiya, a mortal.
(A i 21–23) Inara spoke as follows to Ḫupašiya: “I am about to do such-and-such a thing — you join with me!”
(A i 24–26) Ḫupašiya replied as follows to Inara: “If I may sleep with you, then I will come and perform your heart’s desire.” [And] he slept with her.
(B i 3´-8´) Then Inara transported Ḫupašiya and concealed him. Inara dressed herself up and invited the serpent up from his hole (saying): “I’m preparing a feast — come eat and drink!”
(B i 9´-12´) Then the serpent came up together with [his progeny], and they ate and drank. They drank up every vessel and became intoxicated.
(B i 13´-16´) They were no longer able to go back down into (their) hole, (so that) Ḫupašiya came and tied up the serpent with a cord.
(B i 17´-18´) The Storm-god came and slew the serpent. The (other) gods were at his side.
(C i 14´-22´) Then Inara built a house on a rock (outcropping) in (the town of) Tarukka and settled Ḫupašiya in the house. Inara instructed him: “When I go out into the countryside, you must not look out the window. If you do look out, you will see your wife and your children.”
(C i 23´-24´) When the twentieth day (after Inara’s departure) had passed, he looked out the window and [saw] his wife and [his] children.
(C i 25´-27´) When Inara returned from the countryside, he began to whine: “Let me (go) back home!”
(A ii 9´-14´) Inara spoke as follows [to Ḫupašiya: “…] away […”] through an offense […] the meadow of the Storm-god […] she [… killed (?)] him.
(A ii 15´-20´) Inara [went] to Kiškilušša and how she set her (?) house and [the river (?)] of the watery abyss [into] the hand of the king — because (in commemoration thereof) we are (re-)performing the first purulli festival — the hand [of the king will hold (?) the house (?)] of Inara and the [river (?)] of the watery abyss.
(A ii 21´-24´) (The divine mountain) Zaliyanu is first (in rank) among all (the gods). When he has allotted rain in Nerik, then the herald brings forth a loaf of thick bread from Nerik.
(A ii 25´-29´) He had asked Zaliyanu for rain, and he brings it to him [on account of (?)] the bread …
[Several badly damaged lines are followed by a break.]
(D iii 2´-5´) That which [Kella, the “anointed priest,”] spoke — [The serpent] defeated [the Storm-god] and took [ (his) heart and eyes]. And the Storm-god […] him.
(A iii 4´-8´) And he took as his wife the daughter of a poor man, and he sired a son. When he grew up, he took as his wife the daughter of the serpent.
(A iii 9´-12´) The Storm-god instructed (his) son: “When you go to the house of your wife, then demand from them (my) heart and eyes.”
(A iii 13´-19´) When he went, he demanded from them the heart, and they gave it to him. Afterwards he demanded from them the eyes, and they gave these to him. And he carried them to the Storm-god, his father, and the Storm-god (thereby) took back his heart and his eyes.
(A iii 20´-28´) When he was again sound in body as of old, then he went once more to the sea for battle. When he gave battle to him and was beginning to smite the serpent, then the son of the Storm-god was with the serpent and shouted up to heaven, to his father:
(A iii 29´-33´) “Include me! Do not show me any mercy!” Then the Storm-god killed the serpent and his (own) son. And now this one, the Storm-god
[…]
(A iii 34´-35´) Thus says Kella, [the “anointed
priest” of the Storm-god of Nerik: “…] when the gods […]”
[A break intervenes.]
(D iv 1´-4´) [Then] for the “anointed priest” they made the foremost gods the humblest, and the humblest they made the foremost gods.
(D iv 8´-10´) The cultic revenue of Zaliyanu is great. Zašḫapuna the wife of Zaliyanu is greater than the Storm-god of Nerik.
(D iv 8´-10´) The gods speak as follows to the “anointed priest” Taḫpurili: “When we go to the Storm-god of Nerik, where will we sit?”
(D iv 11´-16´) The “anointed priest” Taḫpurili speaks as follows: “When you sit on a diorite stool, and when the ‘anointed priests’ cast the lot, then the ‘anointed priest’ who holds (the image of) Zaliyanu — a diorite stool will be set above the spring, and he will be seated there.”
(A iv 14´-17´) “All the gods will arrive, and they will cast the lot. Of all the gods of (the town of) Kaštama, Zašḫapuna will be the greatest.”
(A iv 18´-21´) “Because she is the wife of Zaliyanu, and Tazzuwašši is his concubine, these three persons will remain in (the town of) Tanipiya.”
(A iv 22´-23´) And thereafter in Tanipiya a field will be handed over from the royal (property) —
(A iv 24´-28´) Six kapunu-measures of field, one kapunu-measure of garden, a house together with a threshing floor, three buildings for the household personnel. It is recorded [on] a tablet. I am respectful [of the matter], and I have spoken these things (truly).
(A iv 29´-33´) Colophon: One tablet, complete, of the word of Kella, the “anointed priest.” [The scribe] Piḫa-ziti wrote it under the supervision of the chief scribe Walwa-ziti.
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 321; A. KBo 3.7. B. KUB 17.5. C. KUB 17.6. D. KUB 12.66. E. KUB 36.54. F. KBo 12.83. G. KBo 12.84 (+) KBo 13.84. H. KBo 22.99. J. KUB 36.53. Bibliography: ANET 125–126; Beckman 1982; Bernabé 1987:29–37; Gonnet 1987; Hoffner 1990:10–14; Laroche 1968b:65–72; Pecchioli Daddi and Polvani 1990:39–55.
THE WRATH OF TELIPINU (1.57)
Gary Beckman
In the Hittite view, the operation of the universe required that each deity and human conscientiously perform his or her proper function within the whole. Calamity manifested in some sector of the cosmos was an indication that the god or goddess responsible for it had become angry and had abandoned his or her post. The remedy for this evil situation was the performance by both human and divine practitioners of an expiatory ritual which included a mythological account of the deity’s displeasure, departure, and reconciliation. Such “disappearing god texts” (Parker 1989) are attested for at least a dozen Hittite divinities. The example translated here, the best preserved and consequently best known to non-specialists, is addressed to Telipinu, who belonged to the large class of Anatolian Storm-gods.
[The beginning of the text has been lost.]
(A i 1´-4´) Telipinu [became angry and said]: “Do not practice intimidation!” He slipped (?) his right [shoe] on his left (foot). [He slipped (?)] his left [shoe] on his right.
(A i 5´-9´) Mist seized the windows. Smoke seized the house. On the hearth the logs were stifled. [On the altars] the gods were stifled. In the fold the sheep were stifled. In the corral the cows were stifled. The sheep refused her lamb. The cow refused her calf.
(A i 10´-15´) Telipinu went off and took away grain, the fertility of the herds, growth (?), plenty (?), and satiety into the wilderness, to the meadow and the moor. Telipinu proceeded to disappear into the moor. The ḫalenzu-plant spread over him. Barley and wheat no longer grow. Cows, sheep, and humans no longer conceive, and those who are (already) pregnant do not give birth in this time.
(A i 16´-20´) The mountains dried up. The trees dried up, so that buds do not come forth. The pastures dried up. The springs dried up. Famine appeared in the land. Humans and gods perish from hunger. The great Sun-god prepared a feast and invited the Thousand Gods. They ate but were not sated; they drank but were not satisfied.
(A i 21´-25´) The Storm-god concerned himself for his son Telipinu: “My son Telipinu is not here. He became angry and took away for himself everything good.” The great gods and the lesser gods began to search for Telipinu. The Sun-god dispatched the swift eagle: “Go search the high mountains!
(A i 26´-31´) Search the deep valleys! Search the blue sea!” The eagle went, but he did not find him. He brought back a report to the Sun-god: “I didn’t find him, the honored god Telipinu.” The Storm-god said to the Mother-goddess: “What will we do? We will perish from hunger!” The Mother-goddess said to the Storm-god: “Do something, Storm-god! You go search for Telipinu!”
(A i 32´-35´) The Storm-god set out and began to search for Telipinu. He [comes] to his city, to the city gate, but he is not able to open (it). He broke his mallet and wedge. The Storm-god […], covered himself (with his garment), and sat down. The Mother-goddess [dispatched a bee]: “You go search for Telipinu!”
(A i 36´-´) [The Storm-god] spoke [to the Mother-goddess]: “The great gods and the lesser gods repeatedly searched for him, but [they did not find] him. Now [will] this [bee] go [find] him? His wingspan is small, he himself is small, and further-more they (the gods) …”
[A break intervenes. Parallel texts inform us that despite the scepticism of the Storm-god, the bee indeed succeeded in finding the lost god, who was asleep in a meadow. The bee stung Telipinu on his hands and feet, awakening him and only increasing his rage. It is to placating this anger that the program of ritual action which constitutes the remainder of this text is directed. Here the actions of the human magical specialist and of Kamrušepa, goddess of magic, are inextricably intertwined.]
(A ii 3´-8´) And Telipinu […] And she (the human practitioner) ground up (?) malt and beer-bread. […] came forth (?). She cut off good […] at the gate. [Let] the pleasant smell [summon (?) you], Telipinu. Choked (with rage), [may you be reconciled (with gods and humans)]!
(A ii 9´-11´) Here (before you) [lies] water of walḫeššar. [Let] your soul, O Telipinu, [be … Turn] to the king in favor.
(A ii 12´-14´) Here lies galaktar. Let [your soul, O Telipinu], be pacified. Here [lies parḫuena-]. Let (its) form entice you (!), [O Telipinu].
(A ii 15´-18´) Here lie šamama-nuts. Let [your soul, O Telipinu], be sated with oil. Here [lie] figs. As [figs] are sweet, let [your soul, O Telipinu], likewise become sweet.
(A ii 19´-21´) As the olive [holds] its oil in its heart, [and as the grape] holds its wine in its heart, may you, Telipinu, likewise hold goodness in your soul and heart.
(A 22´-27´) Here lies liti-wood. Let it anoint [your soul (?)], O Telipinu. As the malt and beer-bread are joined in their essence, let your soul likewise [be] joined, [O Telipinu], to the words of the humans. [As …] is pure, let Telipinu’s soul likewise become pure. [As] honey is sweet and as ghee is mild, let [the soul] of Telipinu likewise become sweet and likewise become mild.
(A ii 28´-32´) I have now sprinkled the paths of Telipinu with fine oil. O Telipinu, tread the paths sprinkled with fine oil. Let boughs of šaḫi- and ḫappuriya- be your bed. As (stalks of) lemon grass (?) are intertwined, may you, O Telipinu, be reconciled (with gods and humans).
(A ii 33´-iii 2) In fury Telipinu came. He thunders with the lightning bolt. He smites the Dark Earth below. Kamrušepa saw him, [took] an eagle’s wing (as an instrument of magic), and carried him off. She [brought] it, the displeasure, [to an end]. She brought it, the wrath, to an end. She brought [the offense] to an end. She brought the anger to an end.
(A iii 3–7) Kamrušepa speaks to the gods: “Go, O gods. Ḫapantali [is] now [herding] the sheep of the Sun-god. Cut out twelve rams so that I may treat the karaš-grain of Telipinu.” I (the human practitioner) have taken for myself a sieve with a thousand ‘eyes,’ and I have sifted (in it) the karaš-grain, the rams of Kamrušepa.
(A iii 8–12) I have burned (a purificatory substance) over Telipinu on this side and that. I have taken his evil from Telipinu, from his body. I have taken his (perceived) offense. I have taken his displeasure. I have taken his wrath. I have taken his irritation. I have taken his anger.
(A iii 13–20) Telipinu is wrathful. His soul and [his] figure were stifled (like) kindling. As they have burned this kindling, let the displeasure, wrath, (perceived) offense, and anger of Telipinu likewise burn. As [malt] is meager (in fertility), and one does not take it to the field to use as seed, nor does one make it into bread, [nor] does one place [it] in the storehouse, so let the displeasure, [wrath], (perceived) offense, and anger of Telipinu likewise become meager (in effect).
(A iii 21–23) Telipinu is wrathful. His soul [and his figure] are a burning fire. As this fire [is extinguished], let (his) displeasure, wrath, and anger likewise [be extinguished].
(A iii 24–27) O Telipinu, let go of displeasure. [Let go of] wrath. Let go of anger. As a rain spout does not flow [backwards], so [let the displeasure, wrath], and anger of Telipinu not [come] back.
(A iii 28–34) The gods [take their seats in the place] of assembly beneath the hawthorn tree. Beneath the hawthorn tree [are set] long […] All of the gods are seated (including): [Papaya], Ištuštaya, the Fate-deities, the Mother-goddesses, the Grain-deity, the Spirit of growth, Telipinu, the Tutelary Deity, Ḫa-pantali, [and …] I have treated the deities for long years [and for …] I have purified him (Telipinu).
(C 9´-12´) [I have taken] evil from Telipinu, [from his body]. I have taken his [displeasure. I have taken his] wrath. I have taken [his (perceived) offense. I have taken his] anger. I have taken [the evil] tongue. [I have taken] the evil […]
[There is a break. The preserved text resumes with an address to the hawthorn tree.]
(A iv 1–3) [The ox goes beneath you, and] you pluck [his] coat (?). The sheep [goes] beneath you, and you pluck her fleece. Pluck from Telipinu (his) wrath, displeasure, (perceived) offense, and anger.
(A iv 4–7) In fury the Storm-god comes, and the man of the Storm-god (his priest) brings him to a halt. A pot comes to a boil, and the wooden spoon (?) brings it to a halt. Furthermore, let my words, those of the human, likewise bring displeasure, wrath, and anger to an end for Telipinu.
(A iv 8–13) Let them depart, the displeasure, wrath, (perceived) offense, and anger of Telipinu. Let the house release them. Let the central … release them. Let the window release them. Let the door-pivot <release them>. Let the central courtyard release them. Let the city gate release them. Let the gate structure release them. Let the royal road release them. They shall not go to the fertile field, or garden, or grove. They shall go along the road of the Sun-goddess of the Earth.
(A iv 14–19) The doorkeeper opened the seven doors; he drew back the seven bolts. Below, in the Dark Earth, there stand bronze kettles. Their lids are of lead. Their latches are of iron. Whatever goes into (them) does not come up again, but perishes therein. Let them capture the displeasure, wrath, (perceived) offense, and anger of Telipinu, so that they do not come back.
(A iv 20–26) Telipinu came back home and concerned himself for his land. The mist released the window. The smoke released the house. The altars were reconciled with the gods. The hearth released the log. In the fold he (Telipinu) released the sheep. In the corral he released the cows. Then the mother tended her child. The sheep tended her lamb. The cow tended her calf. And Telipinu <tended> the king and queen. He concerned himself for them in regard to life, vigor, and future (existence).
(A iv 27–31) Telipinu concerned himself for the king. An eya-tree stands before Telipinu. From the eya-tree hangs a hunting bag (fashioned from the skin) of a sheep. In it is mutton fat. In it are grain, the fertility of the herds, and the grape. In it are cow and sheep. In it are long years and progeny.
(A iv 32–35) In it is the gentle bleating of the lamb. In it are … and renown. In it is the … In it is the right shank. In it [is growth (?), plenty (?), and sateity].
[The preserved text ends.]
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 324.1; A. KUB 17.10. B. KUB 33.2. C. KUB 33.1. D. KUB 33.3. E. KBo 24.84. Bibliography: ANET 126–128; Bernabé 1987:49–54; Hoffner 1990:14–17; Kellerman 1986; Laroche 1965b:89–98; Parker 1989; Pecchioli Daddi and Polvani 1990:71–84.
APPU AND HIS TWO SONS (1.58)
Harry A. Hoffner, Jr.
This text has been translated here as an independent story. According to Güterbock (1946), the text is continued in the tale of the Sun God, the Cow, and the Fisherman. Although the extant copies of the Appu story are New Hittite, archaic language indicates an archetype composed in the Old or Middle Hittite period. The story has a moral, which is stated in the proemium. The unnamed deity who is praised for always vindicating the just person will also thwart the evil son of Appu who attempts to defraud his honest brother. Only a little bit of the beginning is lost. Where the text becomes intelligible, a proemium is in progress.
He/she it is (i.e., some deity) who always exonerates just men, but chops down evil men like trees, repeatedly striking evil men on their skulls (like) … s until he/she destroys them.
There was a city named Šudul. It was situated on the seacoast in the land of Lulluwa. Up there lived a man named Appu. He was the richest man in all the land. He had many cattle and sheep. He had amassed silver, gold and lapis lazuli like a huge heap of threshed grain. There was nothing which he lacked but one thing: he had neither son nor daughter. a
The elders of Šudul sat eating in his presence. One gave bread and a piece of grilled meat to his son; another gave his son a drink. But Appu had no one to whom to give bread. The table was covered with a linen cloth and stood in front of the altar. Appu arose, went home, and lay down on his bed with his shoes on.
Appu’s wife questioned their servants: “He has never had success before. You don’t think he has now had success, do you?” The woman went and lay down with Appu with her clothes on. Appu awoke from his sleep, and his wife questioned him: “You have never had success before. Have you now had success?” When Appu heard this, he replied: “You are a woman and think like one. You know nothing at all.” b
Appu rose from his bed, took a white lamb, and set out to meet the Sun God. The Sun God looked down from the sky, changed himself into a young man, came to him, and questioned him: “What is your problem, that [I may solve] it for you?”
When [Appu] heard this, he replied to him: “[The gods] have given me wealth. They have given [me cattle and sheep]. I lack only one thing: I have neither son nor daughter.” When the Sun God heard this, he said: “Get drunk, go home, and sleep with your wife. The gods will give you a son.”
When Appu heard this, he went back home, but the Sun God went back up to the sky. Now Teššub (the Storm God) saw the Sun God coming three miles distant, and said to his vizier: “Look who’s coming: the Sun God, Shepherd of the Lands! You don’t suppose that somewhere the land is laid waste? Might not cities somewhere be devastated? Might not troops somewhere be put to rout? Tell the cook and cupbearer to provide him with food and drink.”
[The Sun God] came, […], and [Teššub … ed] him there. Teššub [… ed] the Sun God, and began to question him: “Why [have you come, O Sun God of the Sky?…”]
[Long break.]
[Beginning of column iii broken.]
Appu’s wife became pregnant. The first month, the second month, the third month, the fourth month, the fifth month, the sixth month, the seventh month, the eighth month, the ninth month passed, and the tenth month arrived. Appu’s wife bore a son. The nurse lifted the boy and placed him on Appu’s knees. Appu began to amuse the boy and to clean him off (?). He put a fitting name upon him: “Since my ancestral gods didn’t [take] the right way for him, but followed a wrong way, let his name be Wrong.”
Again, a second time Appu’s wife became pregnant. The [tenth] month arrived, and the woman bore a son. The nurse lifted [the boy] and (Appu) put the right name upon him, “Let them call him by a right name. Since my ancestral gods took the right way for him, let his name be Right.”
[Appu’s boys] grew up and matured and came into manhood. [When] Appu’s boys had grown up [and matured] and come into manhood, they parted [from] Appu, and [divided up] the estate.
Brother Wrong said to Brother Right: “Let us separate and settle down in different places.” Brother Right said [to Brother Wrong]: “Then who […]?” Brother Wrong said to Brother Right: “Since the mountains dwell separately, since the rivers flow in separate courses, as the very gods dwell separately — I say these things to you: The Sun God dwells in Sippar. The Moon God dwells in Kuzina. Teššub dwells in Kummiya. And Šawuška dwells in Nineveh. Nanaya [dwells] in Kiššina. And Marduk dwells in Babylon. As the gods dwell separately, so let us also settle in different places.”
Wrong and Right began to divide up (the estate), while the Sun God looked on from heaven. Brother Wrong took [a half] and gave the other half to his brother Right. They […]ed among themselves. There was one plow ox and [one] cow. Wrong took the one healthy plow ox, and [gave] the unhealthy cow to his brother Right. The Sun God looked [on] from heaven (and said): “Let [Right’s unhealthy] cow become healthy, and let her bear […]” c
(Colophon:) First tablet of Appu: incomplete.
[A separate fragment offers part of the continuation. Beginning broken away.]
[But when they] arrived in Sippar and took their stand before the Sun God for judgment, [the Sun God] awarded the judgment to Brother Right.
[Then Brother Wrong] began to curse. The Sun God heard the curses [and] said: “I will not [decide] it for you. Let Šawuška (a goddess), Nineveh’s Queen, judge it for you.”
[Wrong and Right] set out. And when they arrived at Nineveh and stood before Šawuška [for judgment, …] drew one acre in one direction [and … in the other direction].
[Rest of the text lost.]
REFERENCES
Hoffner 1975a; 1990.
THE SUN GOD AND THE COW (1.59)
Harry A. Hoffner, Jr.
[Güterbock believes that this story is a continuation of Appu and his Two Sons. Beginning of the preserved portion is too broken for connected translation.]
The cow thrived and … -ed. The Sun God looked down from the sky, and his desire leaped forward upon the cow. [He became] a young man, came down from the sky, and began to speak to the cow: “Who do you think you are, that you continually graze on our meadow […]? When the grass is tender and young, [and you graze here], you destroy the meadow.”
[The cow] replied: “Is […] hire […] in its […]?” Then the Sun God responded: “[…] and it [is] in bloom […] me […]” [The Sun God] spoke [further] to the cow: “[…]”
[The rest of the column is broken away, as are the first lines of the next column.]
The Sun God drove the cow […], and the Sun God […] the cow, [and …] cattle […]
[Most of three lines missing.]
… the second, third, [fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth], ninth and tenth month arrived, [and the cow gave birth]. The cow [called] back up to the sky [and] glowered [at the Sun God]. She said [to the Sun God]: “Now I ask you please: [My calf] should have four legs. Why have I borne this two-legged thing?” Like a lion, the cow opened her mouth and went toward the child to eat (it?). The cow made her … as deep as the Deep Blue and set out toward the child [to …].
The Sun God looked down from the sky. [He came down] and took his stand beside the cow. He began [to say to her:] “And who are you, [that you have approached …] to gulp down […]?”
The Sun God [… -ed] the cow [and …]. And (s)he [… -ed …]. When the child [… -ed, …] grass […] his eyes […]. The Sun God […] and him […].
[Break of about 17 lines.]
“The great rivers […] are troubled. The […] are troubled for washing. […] of blood […] for washing. […] let it keep on living.” The day becomes warm […]
When the Sun God had set out to go back up to the sky, he [… -ed] the child […]. He strokes (?) its members along with [its head]. The Sun God spoke to […]: “Take a staff in hand, put the winds on [your feet as] winged [shoes]. Make the trip in one stage. Over the child […] birds, … -birds, […] … –birds, eagles […] Let them … their pegs away from over him. […] snakes intertwined […]”
[The rest of column iii and the beginning of column iv lost.]
[A fisherman] said [to …]: “I will go see. [The … –s] are standing in the mountains […” The fisher-man] arrived at the child.… -birds […] shelducks fly up. […] are ascending (?) and they […] to the sky.
[When the fisherman approached], the poisonous snakes retired to a distance. […] strokes (the child’s) members along with its head. He strokes […] He strokes its eyes […] The fisherman said to himself: “Somehow I have pleased (?) the gods, so that they have removed the unfavorable bread from the rock. I have struck the Sun God’s fancy, and he has led me out (here) for the sake of [the child]. Do you perhaps know about me, O Sun God, that I have no child, that you have led me out (here) for the sake of the child? Truly the Sun God puts […] bread out for him who is dear to him!” The fisher-man lifted the child up from the ground, tidied him up, rejoiced in him, held him close to his chest, and carried him back home.
The fisherman arrived at the city of Urma, went to his house, and sat down in a chair. The fisherman said to his wife: “Pay close attention to what I am about to say to you. Take this child, go into the bedroom, lie down on the bed, and wail. The whole city will hear and say: ‘The fisherman’s wife has borne a child!’ And one will bring us bread, another will bring us beer, and still another will bring us fat. A (n ideal) woman’s mind is clever. She has cut (herself) off from command (ing others). She is dependent on the authority of the god. She stands in woman’s subordination, and she does not disobey (her) husband’s word.”
(The fisherman’s wife) heard the man’s word, went into [the bedroom], lay down on the bed, [and began to wail]. When the men of the city heard, they said: “[The fisherman’s] wife [has borne a child!”] The men of the city [said this] and began to bring [things to her. One] brought [bread, and another] fat [and beer].
[The colophon indicates that the story was continued on another tablet.]
REFERENCES
Hoffner 1975a; 1981; 1990.
2. PRAYERS
PLAGUE PRAYERS OF MURŠILI II (1.60)
Gary Beckman
When he came to the throne, the Great King Muršili II was confronted with both the fragmentation of the Hittite empire and the raging of an epidemic of uncertain character which had carried off in short succession both his father Šuppiluliuma I and his brother Arnuwanda II. Innumerable ordinary Hittites had perished as well. While Muršili mastered the political situation within the first decade of his rule, the plague continued unabated for many more years. To persuade the gods to bring the suffering to an end, the king (or his scribes) composed several prayers in which he confesses his own guilt and that of his land for various offenses, and details the reparations which have already been made. He also points out to the gods that they will only harm themselves by thinning out the ranks of their human servants. The order of the prayers is not indicated in the texts themselves but has been postulated by modern scholars on the basis of the development of Muršili’s argumentation over the course of the series.
First Prayer
(A obv. 1–7) O [all of] you [male deities], all female deities, [all] male deities [of the oath], all female deities of the oath, [all] primeval [deities], all [male] deities and all female deities who were summoned to assembly for witnessing an oath in this [matter]! O mountains, rivers, springs, and underground watercourses! I, Muršili, your priest and servant, have now pled my case before you. O gods, my lords, [listen] for me to my concern about which I present you my justification.
(A obv. 8–15) O gods, [my] lords, a plague broke out in Ḫatti, and Ḫatti has been beaten down by the plague. It [has been] very much [oppressed]. This is the twentieth year. Because Ḫatti is (still) experiencing many deaths, the affair of Tudḫaliya the Younger, son of Tudḫaliya, began to haunt [me]. I inquired of a god through an oracle, [and] the affair of Tudḫaliya the Younger was ascertained by the god (as a source of our suffering). Because Tudḫaliya the Younger was lord of Ḫatti, the princes, the noblemen, the commanders of the thousands, the officers, [the subalterns (?)], and all [the infantry] and chariotry of Ḫattuša swore an oath to him. My father also swore an oath to him.
(A obv. 16–22) [But when my father (Šuppiluliuma I)] mistreated Tudḫaliya, all [the princes, the noblemen], the commanders of the thousands, and the officers of Ḫattuša [went over] to my [father]. Although they had sworn an oath (to him), [they seized] Tudḫaliya, and they killed [Tudḫaliya]. Furthermore, they killed those of his brothers [who stood by] him. […] they sent to Alašiya (Cyprus). [Whatever] was their […] they […] in regard to him. [Thus the …] and the lords transgressed the oath.
(A obv. 23–40) [But] you, [O gods], my [lords], safeguarded my father. […] And because Ḫattuša [had been burned down (?)] by the enemy, and the enemy had taken [borderlands] of Ḫatti, [my father repeatedly attacked the enemy lands] and repeatedly defeated them. He took back the borderlands of Ḫatti which [the enemy had taken]. He [settled] them anew (with Hittites). Furthermore, [he conquered] additional foreign lands [during] his reign. He sustained Ḫatti and [secured] its frontiers on every side. All of Ḫatti prospered in his time. [Humans], cows, and sheep became numerous in his time. The civilian captives who [were carried off] from the land of the enemy survived; none died. But later you came, O gods, [my lords], and have now taken vengeance on my father for this affair of Tudḫaliya the Younger. My father [died] because of the blood of Tudḫaliya. And the princes, the noblemen, the commanders of the thousands, and the officers who went over [to my father] also died because of [this] affair. This same affair also affected the (entire) land of Ḫatti, and [Ḫatti] began to perish because of [this] affair. And Ḫatti [wasted (?)] away. Now the plague [has become] yet [worse]. Ḫatti has been [very much] oppressed by the plague and has become diminished. I, Muršili, [your servant], cannot [master] the turmoil [of my heart]. I cannot [master] the anguish of my body.
[The end of the obverse and the beginning of the reverse are too fragmentary for translation.]
(A rev. 8´-12´) [… Because] my father [killed] this Tudḫhaliya, my father therefore later [performed] a ritual of (expiation of) bloodshed. But Ḫattuša did not [perform] anything. I came along, and I performed [a ritual of bloodshed], but the population did [not] perform anything. [No one] did anything [on behalf of] the land.
(A rev. 13´-20´) Now because Ḫatti has been very much beaten down by the plague, and Ḫatti continues to experience many deaths, the affair of Tudḫaliya has begun to trouble the land. It was ascertained for me (through an oracle) by [a god], and I made (further) oracular inquiries [about it]. They will perform before you, [the gods], my lords, the ritual of (transgressing of) the oath which was ascertained for you, [the gods], my lords, and for your temples in regard to the plague. They will purify [… before you]. And I will make restitution to you, the gods, my lords, with reparation and propitiatory gift on behalf of the land.
(A rev. 21´-40´) Because you, the gods, my lords, have taken vengeance for the blood of Tudḫhaliya, those who killed Tudḫhaliya have made restitution for the blood. This bloodshed has again ruined Ḫatti. Ḫatti has already made (sufficient) restitution for it. Because I have now come along, I and my household will make restitution for it through reparation and propitiatory gift. Let the souls of the gods, my lords, again be appeased. May you, the gods, my lords, be well-disposed toward me once more. Let me appear [before you]. May you listen to what I say to you. I have [not] done anything evil. (Of) those who sinned and did do evil, not one is still here today. They all died off previously. But because the affair implicating my father has devolved upon me, on behalf of the land I am now giving to you, the gods, my [lords], a propitiatory gift on account of the plague. I am making restitution. I am making restitution to you with propitiatory gift and reparation. May you, the gods, my lords, [be] well-disposed toward me once more. Let me appear before you. Because Ḫatti has been oppressed by the plague, [and] has been diminished, [they prepared] the offering bread and libation for you, the gods, my lords. He (the murderer?) is very much beaten down by the plague, and it (Ḫatti?) was […] from the plague. Meanwhile, the aforementioned plague does not simply take it (Ḫatti) away, but people continue to die. These few bakers of offering bread and libation bearers who [are still here] — if they perish, no one will any longer give you offering bread or libation.
(A rev. 41´-51´) May you, [the gods, my lords], be [well-disposed toward me once more] because of the offering bread and libation which [they prepare]. Let me appear before you. Send the plague [out of Ḫatti]. Let (no one) beat down any further these few bakers of offering bread [and libation bearers] who [are still here] for you. Let them not [continue to die in great numbers]. They shall prepare [offering bread] and libation for you. [Come], O gods, my lords. Send the plague [away]. Whatever evils […] to the enemy land, [or which] occurred in the midst of Ḫatti concerning [Tudḫaliya], send them [… away], O gods. Send them to the enemy land. May you be well-disposed toward Ḫatti. Let [the plague] abate once more. [Because] I am appearing before you as your priest and your servant, may you be well-disposed [toward me]. Send away the turmoil from my heart. Take away the anguish from my body.
(A Colophon): [One tablet], complete. When Muršili [pled] his case.
Second Prayer
(C i 1–18) O Storm-god of Ḫatti, my lord, [and gods], my [lords, King] Muršili, your servant, has sent me (saying): Go speak to the Storm-god of Ḫatti, my lord, and to the gods, my lords, as follows: What is this that you have done? You have allowed a plague into Ḫatti, so that Ḫatti has been beaten down severely by the plague. In the time of my father (Šuppiluliuma I) and of my brother (Arnuwanda II) people were dying, and since I have become priest of the gods, people are continuing to die in my time. This is the twentieth year that people have been dying in Ḫatti. By no means has the plague been removed from Ḫatti. I cannot master the turmoil of my heart. I can no longer master the anguish of my body.
(C i 19–28; A obv. 2´-5´) Furthermore, when I performed festivals, I paced back and forth (in worship) for all the gods. I did not privilege any single temple. I have pled my case concerning the plague to all the gods, and I have repeatedly offered [votive gifts to you (saying)]: “Listen [to me, O gods], my [lords, and send the plague out of Ḫatti. Ḫattuša simply cannot …] master [the plague. Let the matter on account of which] people have been dying [in Ḫatti either be established through oracle], or [let me see] it [in a dream, or let a prophet (lit., ‘man of god’)] speak [of it].” But the gods [did not listen] to me, [and] the plague did not abate [in] Ḫatti. [Ḫatti has been beaten down severely].
(A obv. 6´-12´) The [few] bakers of offering bread [and libation bearers] of the gods who [still] remained died off. [The affair of …] continued to trouble [me. I sought (the cause of) the anger] of the gods, [and I found] two old tablets. One tablet [dealt with the ritual of the Euphrates River …] Earlier kings [performed] the ritual of the Euphrates […], but since the time of my father (Šuppiluliuma I) [people have been dying] in Ḫatti, [and] we have never performed [the ritual] of the Euphrates.
(A obv. 13´-24´) The second tablet dealt with (the town of) Kuruštama — how the Storm-god of Ḫatti took the men of Kuruštama to Egyptian territory, and how the Storm-god of Ḫatti made a treaty concerning them with the Hittites. Furthermore, they were put under oath by the Storm-god of Ḫatti. And although the Hittites and the Egyptians had been put under oath by the Storm-god of Ḫatti, the Hittites came to repudiate (the agreement), and suddenly the Hittites transgressed the oath. My father sent infantry and chariotry, and they attacked the border region of Egyptian territory in the land of Amka. He sent (them) again, and they attacked again. When the Egyptians became frightened, they came and actually asked my father for his son for kingship. When my father gave them his son, and when they took him off, they killed him. My father became hostile, went to Egyptian territory, and attacked Egyptian territory. He killed the infantry and chariotry of Egypt.
(A obv. 25´-34´) And at that time the Storm-god of Ḫatti, my lord, gave my father the upper hand in the lawsuit (manifest in the armed conflict), so that he defeated the infantry and chariotry of Egypt. He killed them. When the prisoners of war who had been captured were brought back to Ḫatti, the plague broke out among the prisoners of war, and they [began] to die in great numbers. When the prisoners of war were carried off to Ḫatti, the prisoners of war introduced the plague into Ḫatti, and from that time people have been dying in Ḫatti. When I found the tablet mentioned earlier dealing with Egypt, I made an oracular inquiry of a god about it: “Has this matter discussed earlier been brought about by the Storm-god of Ḫatti because the Egyptians and the Hittites had been put under oath by the Storm-god of Ḫatti?”
(A obv. 35´-46´; C iii 3´-7´) It was ascertained (through an oracle) that the cause of the anger of the Storm-god of Ḫatti, my lord, was the fact that (although) the damnaššara-deities (guarantors of the oath?) were in the temple of the Storm-god of Ḫatti, my lord, the Hittites on their own suddenly transgressed the word (of the oath). Due to the plague I also made an oracular inquiry about the ritual of [the Euphrates], and at that point it was ascertained that I should appear before the Storm-god of Ḫatti, my lord. I have (therefore) now confessed (my) [sin before the Storm-god]: It is true. We have done [it. But the sin] did [not] take place in my time. [Rather, it took place] in the time of my father. […] I am certainly aware. […] The Storm-god [of Ḫatti, my lord], is angry about […] If people have been dying in Ḫatti, I am [now] pleading my [case] concerning this [to] the Storm-god of Ḫatti, my lord. I kneel down to you and [cry out]: “Have mercy!” Listen to me, O Storm-god, my lord. Let the plague be removed from Ḫatti.
(C iii 8´-19´; B iii 16´-20´; A rev. 8´-9´) I will dispose of the matter which I thoroughly researched (through oracular inquiry) [and] of the affairs which were ascertained concerning the plague. I will make full restitution for them […] In regard to the matter of [the oath] which was ascertained concerning the plague, I have offered the ritual [of] the oath for the Storm-god of Ḫatti, [my lord. For the gods, my lords], I have offered [it]. They have [… a ritual] for you, the Storm-god of Ḫatti, [my lord], and [they have …] a ritual for you, [the gods, my lords]. Because [the ritual of the Euphrates] was ascertained for me [concerning the plague], and because I am now on my way [to] the Euphrates, O Storm-god [of Ḫatti], my lord, and gods, my lords, leave me alone concerning the ritual of the Euphrates. I shall perform the ritual of [the Euphrates], and I shall perform it fully. In regard to such matter as I will do it, namely the plague — may the gods, my lords, be well-disposed toward me. Let the plague abate in Ḫatti.
(A rev. 10´-19´) O Storm-god of Ḫatti, my lord, and gods, my lords — so it happens: People always sin. My father sinned and transgressed the word of the Storm-god of Ḫatti, my lord. But I did not sin in any way. But so it happens: The sin of the father devolves upon his son. The sin of my father has devolved upon me, and I have now confessed it to the Storm-god of Ḫatti, my lord, and to the gods, my lords: It is true. We have done it. Because I have confessed the sin of my father, let the souls of the Storm-god of Ḫatti, my lord, and of the gods, my lords, again be appeased. May you be well-disposed toward me once more. Send the plague away from Ḫatti again. Let those few bakers of offering bread and libation bearers who remain not die.
(A rev. 20´-36´) I am now pleading my case concerning the plague to the Storm-god, my lord. Listen to me, O Storm-god of Ḫatti, my lord, and save me! [I say] to you [as follows]: The bird takes refuge in the nest, and the nest [saves] it. Or if anything has become troublesome to some servant, and he pleads his case to his lord, his lord will listen to him and correct for him whatever had become troublesome [to him]. Or if a sin (hangs over) some servant, and he confesses the sin before his lord, then his lord may treat him however he wishes. But since he confesses his sin before his lord, the soul of his lord is appeased, and his [lord] does not call that servant to account. I have confessed the sin of my father: It is true. I did it. [If] there is any reparation (due), then there has indeed already been much because of this [plague introduced by] the prisoners of war whom they brought from the territory of Egypt and the civilian captives whom [they brought]. What is [this]? Ḫattuša has made restitution through the plague. It [has made restitution] twenty-fold. So it happens. And the souls of the Storm-god of Ḫatti, my lord, [and of] the gods, my lords, are simply not appeased. Or if you wish to impose upon me some special restitution, tell me about it in a dream so that I can give it to you.
(A rev. 37´-40´) I repeatedly plead my case [to you], Storm-god of Ḫatti, my lord. Save me! [If] perhaps people have (indeed) been dying because of this matter, let those bakers of offering bread and libation bearers who remain not continue to die while I am correcting it.
(A rev. 41´-44´; C iv 14´-22´) [Or] if people have been dying because of some other matter, let me either see it in a dream, or [let] it [be discovered] by means of an oracle, or let a prophet speak of it. Or the priests will sleep long and purely (in an incubation oracle) in regard to that which I convey to all of them. […] Save me, O Storm-god of Ḫatti, my lord! Let the gods, my lords, reveal to me their providence. Let someone then see it in a dream. Let the matter on account of which people have been dying be discovered … Save me, O Storm-god of Ḫatti, my lord! Let the plague be removed from Ḫatti.
(C Colophon): One tablet, complete. [When] Muršili […] because of the plague [… pled his case].
Third Prayer
(obv. 1–6) O Sun-goddess of (the town of) Arinna, my lady, and gods, my lords, what [have you done]? You have allowed a plague into Ḫatti, so that Ḫatti has been beaten down severely [by the plague]. In the time of my father (Šuppiluliuma I) and of my brother (Arnuwanda II), [people were dying]. Now I have become priest of the gods, [and] people are continuing to die [in my time]. This is the twentieth year [that] people have been dying [in great numbers in Ḫatti]. Ḫatti [has been very much oppressed] by the plague.
(obv. 7–13) Ḫatti has been very much beaten down by the plague. [If someone] produces a child, the […] of plague [will …] to him. He may attain adulthood, but he will not [grow old …] will remain for someone. He [will experience the plague (?)]. To [his] previous condition [he will] not [return]. If he should become old […], he will not be warm.
[The bottom of the obverse and the upper portion of the reverse have been lost.]
(rev. 2´-14´) Now I, Muršili, [have pled my case. Listen] to me, O gods, my lords. [Send (?) away] the turmoil from my heart. [Let] the plague [be removed] from Ḫatti. Send [it] to the enemy lands. In Ḫatti […] If you, the gods, my lords, [do not send] the plague [away] from Ḫatti, the bakers of offering bread and the libation bearers [will die]. And if they die off, [the offering bread] and the libation will be cut off for the gods, [my lords]. Then you will come to me, O gods, [my lords], and hold this (to be) a sin [on my part] (saying): “Why [don’t you give] us offering bread and libation?” May you now be well-disposed to Ḫatti once more, O gods, my lords. Send the plague away again. [Let the plague abate] in Ḫatti. Let it (Ḫatti) thrive and grow. Let it [return] to its previous condition.
Fourth Prayer
(A i 1–16) O gods, my lords: Exalted Storm-god, the two lords of Landa, Iyarri, the deities of Ḫattuša, the deities of Arinna, the deities of Zippalanda, the deities of Tuwanuwa, the deities of Ḫupišna, the deities of Turmitta, the deities of Ankuwa, the deities of Šamuḫa, the deities of Šarišša, the deities of Ḫurma, the deities of Ḫanḫana, the deities of Karaḫna, the deities of Illaya, Kamrušepa of Tani-wanda, the deities of Zarruiša, the Storm-god of Liḫzina, the Tutelary Deity of the Army Camp of the father of My Majesty which is in Maraššantiya, Uliliyašši of Parmanna, the deities of Kattila, the Storm-god of Ḫašuna, the deities of Muwanu (?), the deities of Zazziša, the Telipinus whose temples (?) in the land have been destroyed, the deities of Šalpa, and the Storm-god of [Arziya (?)].
(A i 17–20) O gods, my lords, I, Muršili, your priest, have now bowed down to you. Lend an ear and listen for me to the matter on account of which I have bowed down to you.
(A i 21–35) O gods, my lords, since earliest times you have been concerned with [humans], and you have [not] abandoned humankind. [You have] (rather) very much [safeguarded] humankind. Your divine servants [were] numerous, and they (!) set out for the gods, my lords, offering bread and libation. But now you have turned on humankind, so that it happened that in the time of [my] grandfather (Tudḫaliya III) Ḫatti was oppressed. [It was devastated] by the enemy. Then humankind [was diminished] by the plague; your [divine] servants [were reduced in number]. And of you, [the gods], my lords, [one had no] temple, and [the temple] of another [fell into ruin]. Whoever [served] before a god perished. [No] one performed for you the rites [which …]
(A i 36–46) [But] when my [father] took his seat in kingship, [you], the gods, my lords, stood with him. He resettled once more the [depopulated] lands. [And for you], the gods, my lords, in whatever temple there were no [furnishings], or whatever divine image had been destroyed — my father made up that which he was able to do. He did not make up that which he was not able to do. O gods, [my] lords, you were never troublesome to my father, and you were never troublesome to me, but now you have troubled me.
(A i 47–55) When it happened that my father [went] to Egypt — since the time of (the campaign against) Egypt, the plague has persisted in [Ḫatti]. And from that [time] (the population of) Ḫatti has been dying. [My] father repeatedly made oracular inquiries, but he did not discover (the mind of) you, the gods, <my> lords, through the oracles. And I have repeatedly made oracular inquiries of you, but I have not discovered (the mind of) you, the gods, my lords, through the oracles.
[For the following section the scribe of the primary manuscript indicates that the tablet from which he was copying had been destroyed.]
(B ii 3´-11´) Because the gods, my lords, not […] Because your eyes […] I am already aware in regard to you [… I will make] up [everything (?) for you]. I will restore the [furnishings] for whatever [god] has [a temple] but no divine [furnishings]. I will rebuild a temple for whatever god [has no temple]. I will restore whatever divine image has been destroyed, [as] the image [had been] previously […]
[A long break intervenes.]
(A iv 1–5) […] Should I have restored it for [the gods], my lords, either with (the resources of) the land, or with the infantry and chariotry? If I should reestablish the gods — since my household, land, infantry, and chariotry continue to die, by what means should I reestablish you, O gods?
[Here the earlier tablet had once more been damaged.]
(A iv 16–28) And since they (!) died, by what means should I reestablish [you]? O gods, be well-disposed to me once more because of this [fact]. Bring me peace. Send the plague away from the land once more. Let it abate in the towns where people are dying. Let the plague not return to the towns in which it has (already) abated. [I have said] to myself (?) thus: “[If] the previously-mentioned matter concerning the god is true, my father [could not discover it (the mind of the gods)] through an oracle, nor could I discover it [through an oracle]. But Ḫatti [has made an oracular inquiry], and [has now discovered] it through an oracle.” I have pled my case. […]
[The final few lines are too fragmentary for translation.]
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 378; First Prayer: A. KUB 14.14 + KUB 19.1 + KUB 19.2 + KBo 3.47 + 1858/u + Bo 4229 + Bo 9433. B. KUB 23.3. Second Prayer: A. KUB 14.8. B. KUB 14.11 + 650/u. C. KUB 14.10 + KUB 26.86. Third Prayer: KUB 14.12. Fourth Prayer: A. KUB 14.13 + KUB 23.124. B. KBo 22.71. Bibliography: ANET 394–396 (Second Prayer only); TUAT 2/6:808–810 (First Prayer only); Malamat 1955; Bernabé 1987:279–284; Hoffner 1971b; Goetze 1930; Lebrun 1980:191–239.
3. RITUALS
THE “RITUAL BETWEEN THE PIECES” (1.61)
Billie Jean Collins
This ritual is written on a Sammeltafel, which, judging by the use of double paragraph dividers, contains at least ten separate compositions. The final composition is a lustration ritual to performed in the event of military defeat. It has been dated to the Middle Hittite period. The tablet itself, however, was copied in the Empire period.
If the troops are defeated by the enemy, then they prepare the “behind the river” ritual as follows: Behind the river they sever a human, a billy–goat, a puppya (and) a piglet. On one side they set halves and on the other side they set the (other) halves. In front (of these) they make a gate of hawthorn and stretch a cord (?) up over (it). Then, before the gate, on one side they burn a fire and on the other side they burn a fire. The troops go through,c but when they come alongside the river, they sprinkle water over them (selves). They perform the ritual again in the steppe. They celebrate the ritual of the steppe in the same way.
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 426; KUB 17.28 iv 45–56. Editions: Collins 1990; Kümmel 1967:150–152; Masson 1950. Discussion: Eitrem 1947; Moyer 1983.
PULIŠA’S RITUAL AGAINST PLAGUE (1.62)
Billie Jean Collins
Puliša’s Ritual was recorded on a Sammeltafel. It is one of a handful of Hittite scapegoat rituals, all of which were performed to counteract plague. This particular ritual uses human beings as the scapegoats, both belonging to the enemy population and therefore expendable. They act as substitutes for the king, with whom responsibility for divine disfavor and the welfare of the population ultimately lay. Both a male and a female substitute were required to allow for a deity of either sex. The rituals with the man and the woman are followed immediately by identical rites involving a bull and a ewe.
§1 [T]hus says Puliša [… when the king] strikes an enemy [la]nd and marches [away from the border of the enemy land, if then …] either some [male] deity [or female deity of the enemy land is angered (?) and (as a result) among] the people a plague occur[s, I do the following:]
§2 As he [is marching a]way from the border of the land of the enemy, they take one prisoner and one woman of the (enemy’s) land. [On which (ever) road] the ki[ng] came from the land of the enemy, the king tr[avels] on that road. All of the lords travel with him. One prisoner and one woman they bring before him. He removes the garments from his body. They put them on the man. But on the woman [they p]ut the garments of a woman. To the man the king says as follows (if it is [not] convenient for the king, then he sen[ds] another and that one takes care of the ritual) that one [sa]ys [to] the man as follows: “If some male god of the enemy land has caused this plague, for him I have just given an adorned man as a substitute. This o[ne is gr]eat with respect to his head, this one is great with respect to his heart, and this [one is gr]eat with respect to his limb. You male god, be pacified with t[his ad]orned man. Turn [agai]n in friendship to the king, the [lords], the ar[my, and] to the land of Ḫatti. […] but [let] this prisoner be[ar] the plague and transport (it) ba[ck into the land of the enemy.]”
§3 He speak[s t]o the woman also in the same way in case of a fema[le dei]ty.
§4 Afterward, [they drive up] one bull and one e[we and …] of the la[nd] of the enemy. Th[ey …] him, his ears, an earrin[g …]. Red wool, yellow–green wool, bla[ck] wool, [white wool …] he dra[ws] forth from the king’s mouth. [He says as follows:] “Because the king kept becoming blood[–red, yellow–green, b]lack [and white …, let t]hat […] back to the land of the en[emy] and [for] the person of [the king], the lords, the inf[antry], the [cha]riotry [… do not] take notice, (but) take notice of it for the land of the enemy.” … The ašušant– bull [they bring before him (?) and] he [s]ays as follows: “The god [of ]the enem[y] who [caused this plague], if he is a male god, to you I have gi[ven] an [ado]rned, ašušant–, and powerful (?) [bull]. You, O male god, be pacified. Let [th]is bull carry [this plague] back into the land of the enemy. [Turn again in friendship to the king, to the prin]ces, the lords, the army and to the la[nd of Ḫatti].”
§5 Afterwards, he speaks to the ado[rned] ewe [also in the same way] in case of a female deity.
§6 Then th[ey] send the ašušant– bull [and the ewe] to run in front [of the prisoner] and the woman.
§7 Then afterwards […].
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 407; Duplicates: A. KBo 15.1 i 1 – ii 4, B. KBo 21.9 (= A i 34–39); Edition: Kümmel 1967:111–125; Translation: Wright 1987:45–47. Discussions: Gurney 1977:47–58; Moyer 1983:35; Janowski and Wilhelm 1993.
UḪḪAMUWA’S RITUAL AGAINST PLAGUE (1.63)
Billie Jean Collins
§1 Thus says Uḫḫamūwa, man of Arzawa. If in the land there is continual dying and if some god of the enemy has caused it, then I do as follows:
§2 They bring in one wether and they combine blue wool, red wool, yellow–green wool, black wool and white wool and they make it into a wreath and they wreathe the one wether and they drive the wether forth on the road to the enemy and they say to him (the god) as follows: “What god of the enemy has made this plague, now this wreathed wether we have brought for your pacification, O god! Just as a fortress is strong and (yet) is at peace with this wether, may you, the god who has made this plague, be at peace in the same way with the land of Ḫatti. Turn again in friendship to the land of Ḫatti.” Then they drive the wreathed sheep into the enemy territory.
§3 Afterward they bring fodder for the god’s horses and sheep fat, and they recite as follows, “You have harnessed your horses. Let them eat this fodder and let them be satiated. Let your chariot be anointed with this sheep fat. Turn toward your land, O Storm God. Turn in friendship toward the land of Ḫatti.”
§4 Afterward they bring one billy goat and two sheep. He consecrates the goat to the Ḫeptad, and one sheep he consecrates to the Sun God, but the other sheep they kill and (then) they cook it. Then they bring one cheese, one rennet, one pulla–vessel, a sour–bread, one ḫūppar–vessel of wine, one ḫūppar–vessel of beer, and fruit. They prepare these for the god of the journey.
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 410; Duplicates: A. HT 1 ii 17–47 (NS), B. KUB 9.31 ii 43–iii 13 (NH), C. KUB 41.17 ii 18–24. Translations: Friedrich 1925:10; ANET 347; Wright 1987:55–57. Discussions: Gurney 1977:47–58; Janowski and Wilhelm 1993:135 and passim.
ZARPIYA’S RITUAL (1.64)
Billie Jean Collins
The Ritual of Zarpiya is the second of three scapegoat rituals contained on a single Sammeltafel. The author of the text is from Kizzuwatna and as a result the text is laden with Luwian words and incantations, often rendering translation difficult. The first half of the ritual involves an oath–taking on the part of the participants; the second half is a scapegoat ritual of sorts. The human scapegoats in this case are nine young boys. The theme of the number nine is repeated throughout the ritual. The gods at whom the ritual is directed are Šantaš and the Innarawanteš, a group of deities perhaps totalling nine.
§1 [Thus says Zarp]iya, physician of Kizzuwatna, (regarding) [when the year] is ruinous (and) in the land there is continual dying. [Then] in which (ever) city (there is) ruin as a result, [the master of (each)] house will do as follows:
§2 I hang up the kelu– [of the cli]ent. Its ḫuppali– is bronze. Its [kariu]lli-[cloth] is of a shaggy lion-skin. But its footstool is of basalt, and its (the footstool’s) ḫazziul is a paw (?) of lapis, the strong paw (?) of a bear, […] but he h[angs the …] of a wild goat.
§3 And the ali–s are of black wool and red wool (and) the yellow wool of the town of Ḫarnuwašila. Before the sinew of a dog is … ed, he […] three [… s]. On one side he hangs one (piece) on a peg (made of) apricot (?)-wood, while on the other side he hangs one (piece) on a peg (made of) cornel wood.
§4 First and foremost, in front on that side he hits the apricot (?)–wood peg into the gate. He hangs a cooked kuggulaš of barley flour, a kuggulaš of ḫariyanti-barley flour, and one jug of wine. On this side, however, he hits [the peg] of cornel wood i[nto the gate], and from it (the peg) he hangs a cooked kuggulaš of barley flour, a kuggulaš of ḫariyanti-barley flour, and one jug of wine.
§5 With the pegs, a white bush is stuck in/planted. Downwards from the ground […] downwards at the front. On either side he buries wašši–, whose name is ḫuwallari. Furthermore, the gate behind the door of the courtyard on which he hangs the kelu–s — down in front of the kelu–s he places a wicker table and on top of it he sets an ax of bronze, one warm bread, thick bread (and) cheese. Thereon (he sets) a bronze ax, a bronze dagger, a strung bow, [and] one arrow.
§6 Down in front on the wicker table he places one ḫuppar–vessel of wine from the puri-stand, and from the puri–stand he places one pitcher of PIḪU drinking beer. Into the pitcher of PIḪU drinking beer he inserts one straw.
§7 They bring in one billy–goat and the master of the estate libates it with wine before the table for Šantaš. Then he holds out the bronze ax and says as follows: “Come Šantaš! Let the Innarawanteš-deities come with you, (they) who are wearing bloodied (clothes), who have bound on (themselves) the sashes (?) of the mountain dwellers,
§8 who are girt (?) with daggers, who hold strung bows and arrows. “Come and eat! We will swear (an oath).” When he is finished speaking, he places the bronze ax down on the table and they slit (the throat of) the billy-goat.
§9 He takes the blood and the straw that was left in the mug — he anoints that with the blood. Then they bring the raw liver and the heart and the master of the estate holds them out for the gods. Further he takes a bite (and) they imitate (him). He puts (his) lips on the straw and sips and says as follows:
§10 “O Šantaš and Innarawanteš-deities, we have just taken the oath.
§11 We have bitten from the raw liver; from a single straw we have drunk. O Šantaš and Innarawanteš-deities, do not approach my gate again.” They cook the liver and heart on a fire and they butcher the entire goat “plain.”
§12 Then, when the fat arrives, they bring out the liver and heart and the flesh — everything — to the god. With it they bring two times nine thick loaves (made) from wheat flour of one-half handful (of flour). He breaks nine loaves. Over these they place the liver and heart and he sets them back on the table and says as follows: “Eat, O Sun God of Heaven above and below. Let the gods of the father of the house eat! Let the thousand gods eat.
§13 And for this oath be witnesses.” Next he libates the wine nine times before the table of the Innarawanteš-deities. He takes the shoulder and the breast (of the sacrifice) and breaks nine loaves of bread.
§14 He scatters them on the potstand and pours wine opposite. Then they bring (in) nine (!) boys who have not yet gone to a woman. On one boy they put a goatskin and that one walks in front and calls (out) in the manner of a wolf. They surround the tables and devour the shoulder and breast.
§15 But [when they] wish to eat […], he brings (them) in the same way and they devour the li[ver and heart]. They also drink. [He brings] the pitcher [of PIḪU drinking beer] and they drink the pitcher of PIḪU beer.
§16 The master of the house <holds> a staff/ branch from a šuruḫḫa–tree, steps into the gate and in Luwian conjures as follows:
§§17–18 {Luwian incantation}
§19 He breaks a thick bread, while reciting as follows in Luwian:
§§20–21 {Luwian incantation}
§22 They take up the ritual implements and he closes the door. He anoints it with fine oil, and says:
§23 “Let (the door) shut out evil and let it keep in good.”
§24 One tablet. Finished. The word of Zarpiya, physician from Kizzuwatna. If a year is ruinous and the land is dying, then the kelu– rituals he offers in this way.
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 757. Duplicates: A = KUB 9.31 i – ii 42 (MH/NS); B = HT 1 i – ii 16 (MH/NS); C = KUB 35.9; D = KUB 35.10; E = Bo 4809 (Otten and Rüster 1978:276, no. 68); F. KBo 34.243 (Rüster 1992:477f.). Edition: Schwartz 1938; Parital Translation: Starke 1985b:46–55. Discussion: Collins 1989:55f.
RITUAL AND PRAYER TO ISHTAR OF NINEVEH (1.65)
Billie Jean Collins
The beginning of this text, containing a ritual for the goddess, is broken. In §4, where the text becomes legible, the officiant is reciting an invocation.
§3 […] they cover [her?] with a cloth […] all the singers play [the … –instruments] and sin[g]. […] outside on seven paths […] they go to […] and […]. The diviner [sets (?)] down a table.… red, what are la[id] for soldier breads […] he takes, and the singers pull […] of the path (or: for the paths?).
§4 […] He says as follows “… O Ištar […] I will keep […]ing and for you … [If you are in Nineveh] then come from Nineveh. (But) if you are [in] R[imuši, then come from Rimuši]. If you are in Dunta, then come from Du[nta].
§5 (O Ištar,) [if you are] in [Mittanni], then come from Mittanni. [If you are in …, then come from.… I]f you are in Dunippa then [come from] Duni[ppa. If you are in Ugarit] then com[e] from Ugarit. [If you are in … then come from …]. Come from Dunanapa. [Come from.… Come from.… Come] from Alalḫaz. [Come from.… Come from] A[murra.] Come from Zīduna. [Come from ….] Come from Nu[ḫašša]. Come from Kulzila. [Come from ….] Come from Zunzurḫa. Come from Aššur. [Come from….] Come from Kašga. Come from every land. [Come from] Alašiya. Come from Ālziya. Come from Papanḫa. [Come from.…] Come from Ammaḫa. Come from Ḫayaša. [Come from ….] Come from Karkiya. [Come] from the lands of Arzauwa. [Come from ….] Come from the land of Maša. [Come] from Kuntara. [Come from.…] Come from Ura. Come from Luḫma. [Come from …]. Come from Partaḫuina. Com[e] from Kašula. [Come from.…]
§6 If (you are) in the rivers and streams [then come from there.] If for the cowherd and shepherds [you …] and (you are) among them, then come away. If (you are) among [the …], if you are with the Sun Goddess of the Earth and the Primor[dial Gods] then come from those.
§7 Come away from these countries. For the king, the queen (and) the princes bring life, health, streng[th], longevity, contentment (?), obedience (and) vigor, (and) to the land of Ḫatti growth of crops (lit., grain), vines, cattle, sheep (and) humans, šalḫitti-, mannitti– and annari–.
§8 Take away from the (enemy) men manhood, courage, vigor and māl, maces, bows, arrows (and) dagger(s), and bring them into Ḫatti. For those (i.e., the enemy) place in the hand the distaff and spindle of a woman and dress them like women. Put the scarf on them and take away from them your favor.2
§9 But from the women take away motherliness, love (and) mūšni– and bring it into the Ḫatti-land. Afterwards care for the king, the queen, the sons of the king (and) the grandsons of the king in wellbeing, life, health, vigor, (and) long years forever. Sustain it and make it rich. Let the land of Ḫatti, (which is) for you (both) bride and offspring, be a pure land.
§10 I have handed over to you the land of Ḫatti (which) again (has been) damaged. O Ištar of Nineveh, Lady, do you not know how the land of Ḫatti is damaged by this deadly plague?
§11 The diviner breaks one thin loaf for Ištar of Nineveh and crumbles it into the spring. Afterward he again breaks one thin loaf for Ištar of Nineveh and sets it down on the table. He sprinkles oatmeal before the table. Next he sprinkles meal into the spring.
§12 Further, before the table on the oatmeal he sprinkles sweet oil cake (and) meal. He libates wine three times into the spring and libates three times before the table.
§13 The diviner says these words, and when they attract (lit., pull) her with the thick loaf, they fill a KUKUB–vessel with water besides. Then in that place they open up ritual pits, and the diviner pulls the deity up from there seven times with “ear” loaves. He says, “If the king, queen, or princes — anyone — has done something and has buried it, I am now pulling it from the earth.” He recites the same words again, and they do the same in that place also.
§14 He cuts into one thin loaf and sets it on a pine cone. He pours fine oil on it and the diviner having taken the “ear” bread pulls the deity from the fire fourteen times and says as follows: “I have pulled it from the fire.”
§15 He recites the same words again. He sets down the “ear” bread at the soldier loaves and buries one large bird for Ištar of Nineveh and ḫūwalzi–s. But they burn two birds for unalzi.
§16 When he is finished, the diviner takes up the table and in front of the red headband that lies on the table he holds another, and they bring (it) in to the goddess. The singers play the INANNA-instrument and the cymbals (?) and sing. They bring the god back into the temple.
[The remaining §§ are too fragmentary for translation.]
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 716. Duplicates: A = KUB 15.35 + KBo 2.9 (MH/NS); B = KBo 2.36; C = KBo 21.48 (MH/NS). Discussions: Archi 1977; Bossert 1946:34f.; Ehelolf 1937:68; Hoffner 1966:331; 1967:391f.; Sommer 1921.
THE FIRST SOLDIERS’ OATH (1.66)
Billie Jean Collins
The following is the second tablet of a two-tablet text of a military oath, known as the first soldiers’ oath. The language of the composition indicates that it was composed in the Middle Hittite period (late 15th century BCE), although the copies that survive were inscribed in the Empire period. The text is especially interesting for its parallels in the literature of other cultures, including Indian, Mesopotamian, Greek and Israelite.
§1 […] he places [cedar in] their [hands]. […] they [… it]. He [spread]s [out] a net […] and he says to them, [“this …] is it not [… in (?)] his house? Do the gods [not …] them? Just as cedar […] its fragrance […].3
§2 [… these oa]th d[eities …].5
§3 [The diviner (?) …]s and says, [“Becaus]e [this person wa]s living and used to find heaven above, now they have blinded him in the place of the oath. […] Who transgre[sses] these oaths and takes deceptive action against the king of Ḫatti, and sets (his) eyes upon the land of Ḫatti as an enemy, may these oath deities seize him and [may they] blind his army too, and further, may they deafen them. May comrade not see comrade. May this one not hear [that one]. May they give them a horrible d[eath]. May they fetter their feet with a wrapping below, and bind their hands above. Just as the oath deities bound the troops of the land of Arzawa by their hands and feet and set them in a heap, in the same way may they bind his troops too, and set them in a heap.
§4 He places yeast in their hands and they lick it. Then he says as follows: “What is this? Is it not yeast? Just as they take a little of this yeast and mix it into the kneading bowl and (as) they let the bowl sit for one day, and it (i.e., the dough) rises, who transgresses these oaths and takes deceptive action against the king of Ḫatti and sets his eyes upon Ḫatti as an enemy, may these oath deities seize him. May he be completely broken up by diseases. May he carry off (i.e., suffer) a horrible death.” They say, “(So) be it.”
§5 He places wax and sheep fat in their hands and he casts (some) on the flame and says, “Just as this wax melts and just as the sheep fat is rendered,9 who breaks the oath and takes deceptive action against the king of Ḫatti, may he melt like the wax and may he be rendered like the sheep fat.” They say, “(So) be it.”
§6 He places sinew (and) salt in their hands and he casts (some of) them into the flame. He says as follows: “Just as this sinew melts (?) on the hearth, just as salt disintegrates on the hearth, so may he who transgresses these oaths and takes deceptive action against the king of Ḫatti and sets (his) eyes upon the land of Ḫatti as an enemy, may these oaths (var. oath deities) seize him and like the sinew may he melt (?) and like the salt may he disintegrate. Also, just as the salt does not (produce) its seed, for that man, may his name, his progeny, his household, his cattle, and his sheep perish in the same way.”
§7 He places malt and beer seasoning in their hands and they lick it. He says to them as follows: “Just as they mill this beer seasoning with a millstone and mix it with water and cook it and mash it, who transgresses these oaths and takes part in evil against the king, the queen or against the princes or against the land of Ḫatti, may these oath deities seize him and in the same way may they mill his bones and in the same way may they heat him up and in the same way may they mash him. May he carry off a horrible death.” They say, “(So) be it.”
§8 “Just as this malt has no propagation, (and) they do not carry it to the field and make it (into) seed, and they do not make it (into) bread and store it in the storehouse, for him who transgresses these oaths and takes part in evil against the king, queen or against the princes, may the oath deities destroy his future in the same way, and may his wives not bear him a son or a daughter. In the plain, the field and the meadow may the vegetation not grow. May his cattle and sheep not bear calf or lamb.”
§9 They bring a woman’s garment, a distaff and a spindle and they break an arrow (lit., reed). You say to them as follows: “What are these? Are they not the dresses of a woman? We are holding them for the oath–taking. He who transgresses these oaths and takes part in evil against the king, queen and princes may these oath deities make (that) man (into) a woman. May they make his troops women. Let them dress them as women.b Let them put a scarf on them. Let them break the bows, arrows, and weapons in their hands and let them place the distaff and spindle in their hands (instead).”
§10 They lead before them a woman, a blind man and a deaf man and you say to them as follows: “Here (are) a woman, a blind man and a deaf man. Who takes part in evil against the king and queen, may the oath deities seize him and make (that) man (into) a woman. May they b[li]nd him like the blind man. May they d[eaf]en him like the deaf man. And may they utt[erly] destroy him, a mortal, together with his wives, his sons, and his clan.”
§11 12 He places [in] their hands a fig[urine of a man] with its [in]sides full of water, and says as follows: “Who is this? Has he no[t] taken an oath? He took [an oath] before the gods, then he [tra]nsgressed the oath, and the oath deities seized him. His insides filled (with water). With his hands he holds his stomach lifted up in front. May these oath deities seize whoever transgresses these oaths. May his insides fill (with water). Within his insides may the child (ren?) of Išḫara14 (i.e., disease) [dwell (?)] and may they devour him.”
§12 He holds out [a …] and he [thro]ws it face (lit., eyes) down and they trample it with their foot. He says to them as follows: “Who breaks these oaths let it happen that the [troop]s of Ḫatti trample his city with (their) foot in the same way, and that they render the settlements deserted.”
§13 They inflate a [bl]adder and [tra]mple it with their foot, so that the air is [ex]pelled. He says, “As this has been emptied, let the house of who (ever) transgresses these oaths be emptied of people, his cattle and his sheep in the same way.”
§14 You set an oven down before them and you set down before (them) models of a plow, a wagon and a chariot. They break them up. And he says as follows: “Who transgresses these oaths, for him may the Storm God break up (his) plow. Just as vegetation does not come up from an oven, may wheat and barley not come up in his field. Let cress (var. weeds) go up (instead).”
§15 You give to them a red pelt and he says, “Just as they make this red pelt blood colored and from it the bl[oo]d color does not leach out, in the same way may the oath deities seize you and may it (i.e., the blood color) not leave you.”
§16 He sprinkles water on the fire and says to them as follows: “As this burning fire was extinguished, who[ever] breaks these oaths, let these oath deities seize him, and also may his life, his youth, (and) his prosperity in future — together with his wives and his sons — be extinguished in the same way. May the oath deities curse him cruelly. May the meadow not thrive for his herd, his flock (and) his livestock. And from his field and furrow may vegetation not come for him.”
§17 Second Tablet. When they bring the troops for the oath.
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 427. Duplicates: A = KBo 6.34 + KUB 48.76; B = KUB 40.16 + KUB 7.59 (+) 342/u (+) 524/u (+) 1087/z + 797/v; C = KUB 40.13. Editions: Friedrich 1924; Oettinger 1976. Translations: ANET 353f.; Cornil 1994:102–108. Discussions: Börker-Klähn 1992; Burde 1974; Hoffner 1966; 1977.
THE SECOND SOLDIERS’ OATH (1.67)
Billie Jean Collins
This text is of New Hittite date and shows many developments from the older example translated above. Among other things, there are marked Hurrian influences.
§1´ [… If you transgress these oaths …] may they […], may they […], may they […].
§2´ But [if you keep them], for you (pl.). […] he says: […]
§3´ [He] h[olds] out torches [to them, and says,] “[…] these torches […], if [you transgress] these [words,] may Umpa and Šarruma3 [destroy you along with your …].”
§4´ “And as [the fire (?) …] burns [the torches …] again [he …]s, (so) he who [transgresses] these wor[ds … entir]ely (?) from the dark [netherworld …] again to the dark netherworld [may he not (?) …].
§5´ “[But if] you [keep them (i.e. the words), may it be] wel[l] with you.”
§6´ [Afterwards] they extinguish [the torches], [and he says] to them [as follows: “… just as] the torches […] and no one [… s] him/it, [… in the same way who transgresses these words may] no one [… him …].”
§7´ “[Just as you have] extinguish[ed the torches, …], may he [who transgresses] these wo[rds b]e extinguished [in the same way along with] his [progeny,] his house, his wife […] and to you (pl.) […].”
§8´ [He places bowls in their hands and] they break [them] up […] at the same time [saying] as follows: “[These are not bowls], they are your heads. [If] you do [not] keep [them (i.e., the words)] may the gods break [up your heads in the same way], and [may they …] you in the [same way.]
§9´ “Bu[t if] you keep them may [the gods] break up [a horrible death] for [yo]u in the same way.”
§10´ [Aft]erwards they pour out water [and simultaneously] he sa[ys as follows]: “Just as the earth [swallows down] this water and afterward no trace of it is visible, may the earth swallow [you] down in the same way, and, like the water, may no [trace] of you be visible afterward.”
§11´ [Aft]erwards he pours out wine, and simultaneously [he says as follows:] “[This] is not w[ine], it is your blood. [Just as] the earth swallowed (this) dow[n], may the earth swallow down your [blood] and […] in the same way.”
§12´ [After]wards he pours water into the wine and [simultaneously] says as [follo]ws: “Just as this water [is mixed] with the wine, may these oath deities mix sick[ness] within your bodies in the same way.”
§13´ (Concerning) t[his wh]ich is from the head, may the Moon God continually strike you. May […] flee from [your] insides and for you [may] the inside [be …], and may the Moon God make …, and for you (pl.) … […], and may he [not] go to see the lands.
§14´ [Afterwards] they hold a rock with their hands underneath (it) and [simultaneously] they say [as fol]lows: “As this rock is h[eavy], [in the same way] may the oath and sickness become heavy [in your insides].
§15´ [If] you keep these oaths, [just as] they are [everla]sting for you, in the same way [may you be] everlasti[ng].”
§16´ If (it is) a patili–priest then […] him in [but if (it is) a … then … be]fore the gate […].
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 427; KUB 43.38. Edition: Oettinger 1976.
4. INCANTATIONS
PURIFYING A HOUSE: A RITUAL FOR THE INFERNAL DEITIES (1.68)
Billie Jean Collins
This text offers a tantalizing glimpse into Hurro–Hittite mythology. The underworld deities, referred to as the Primordial or Ancient Gods, are solicited on behalf of a house possessed of various types of uncleanness, to come up from below the earth and carry the uncleanness back down into the underworld with them.
The ritual is completed over two days, the location alternating between the house and various outdoor locales, including, at the end of the ritual, the steppe, where the ritual paraphernalia can be disposed of safely. The main recensions of this narrative were composed in the Middle Hittite period. The copies date to the Empire Period.
§1 When [they] cleanse a house of blood, impuri[ty], threat, (and) perjury, its treatment (is) as follows:
§2 In the morning the exorcist opens the house [and] he goes [in]. He holds a hoe, a spade and a shovel (?). He digs the ground (with) the hoe, (and) he [clears (?)] the (resulting) pit2 with the spade.
§3 He digs in this same way at the four corners (of the house) and he digs in this very same way [to the side of (?) the hea]rth. The (resulting) pit [he clears (?) with] the shovel (?).
§4 He says as follows: “O Sun Goddess of the Earth, we are taking this m[atter …]. Why is this house gasping? Why does it look upward to heaven?
§5 Either a human has perjured (himself), or he has [shed] blood and has turned [up] his šeknu–garment to these houses, or someone has made a threat, or someone has spoken a curse, or someone having shed blood or having committed perjury has entered,
§6 or someone has practiced (witchcraft (?)) and [has] en[tered], or bloodshed has occurred in the house. May this now release the evil, impurity, perjury, bloodshed, curse, threat, tears (and) sin of the house. May the floor (lit., earth), the floorboard, the bedroom, the hearth, the four corners, (and) the gates of the courtyard release (them).
§7 He goes forth to the courtyard. He takes mud in the courtyard and speaks in the same way. He takes mud in the gatehouse and speaks in the same way.
§8 He goes out. He cuts a reed off with an ax before the gate and says as follows: “Just as I cut this reed and it does not (re)attach (itself), now in the same way let it cut the evil bloodshed of the house, and let it not come back.”
§9 [Then] at the top (lit., back) of the rain pipe they pour a ḫanešša-vessel of wine [and he says], “As water flows down [from the roof] and it does not go [back (up)] the rain pipe [again], may the evil, impurity, perjury, blood, tears, sin, curse, and threat of this house pour out and may they not come back again.”
§10 He throws the ḫanešša–vessel down from the roof and smashes it. But the mud that he had taken, that6 he carries to (the place) where all the ritual paraphernalia has been placed.
§11 He goes to the river bank and takes oil, beer, wine, walḫi–drink, marnuan–drink, a cupful (of) each in turn, sweet oil cake, meal, (and) porridge. He holds a lamb and he slaughters it down into a pit. He speaks as follows:
§12 “I, a human being, have now come! As Ḫannaḫanna takes children from the river bank and I, a human being, have come to summon the Primordial Deities of the river bank9, let the Sun Goddess of the Earth open the Gate and let the Primordial Deities and the Sun God (dess) of the Earth (var. the Lord of the Earth) up from the Underworld (lit., earth).
§13 Aduntarri the diviner, Zulki the dream interpretess, Irpitiga Lord of the Earth, Narā, Namšarā, Minki, Amunki, Ābi — let them up! I, a human, have not come independently, nor have I come in quarrel. In a house, blood, tears, perjury, quarrel, (and) sin have occurred. Heaven above has been angered, and the Underworld below has been angered.
§14 The exorcist of the Storm God sent12 you, the Primordial Deities, from the underworld. He said this word to you:
§15 “[In this house] evil impurity, [blood, tears], quarrel, sin, (and) perjury [have occurred]. The exorcist [has] summon[ed you,] the [Primord]ial Deities. […] go back and go […]. Cleanse [the house from] the evil, impurity, blood, [perjury, sin], quarrel, curses, tears, (and) [threat].
§16 “Bind [their (i.e., each evil’s)] [fee]t (and) hands and carry them down to the Dark Underworld.” He takes the clay of the river bank, but in its place he sets sweet oil cake, meal (and) porridge. He libates beer, wine, [walḫi]–drink, (and) [m]arnuan–drink. He takes [up] (what has) bubbled and binds it in.
§17 He stretches out a scarf along the ground [… and] walks along the scarf […] and he goes in.
§18 He sprinkles the clay of the river bank with oil and honey. (With it) he fashions [the]se gods: Aduntarri the exorcist, Zulki the dream interpretess, Irpitiga, Narā, Namšara, Minki, Amunki, Ābi. He fashions them as (i.e., in the form of) daggers. Then he spreads them along the ground and settles these gods there (–šan).
§19 He takes four jugs of wine, a thick loaf, meal, porridge, (and) gangati–vegetable soup and goes to the water and says as follows: “(Concerning) the matter for which I have come, let the spring, the water, ask me. With me the Lady (Ištar) has come from the vegetation.
§20 In her [le]ft ear they set earrings (in the form) of a šuraššura– (bird). It is important. But she does not [re]move (her) cloak. She holds an empty vessel in her hand. […] On her head was placed a wreath (?) of string.
§21 She spoke to the spring, and she spoke to the swamp, she spoke to the deity [of (?)] the piten[…] water, “The water for which I have come, give that water to me — the water of purification that cleanses bloodshed and perjury, that cleanses the gatehouse, that cleanses com[mon gossip, cur]se, sin, (and) threat.”
§22 [The spring (?)] answered Ištar: “Draw the water seven times or draw the water eight times. Pour out [the water seven or eight times]. But on the ninth time what water you request, draw that [wa]ter and ta[ke] it.”
§23 Her h[air fl]owed down from the throne to Kumarbi. Her hair flowed to [the under]world, to the Sun Goddess of the Earth. While you are carrying [tha]t water, the falcon then brings other water from the sea. He holds the water in the right hand, while in the left hand he holds the words.
§24 Ištar is able to fly. She flew from Nineveh to meet the falcon. In her right hand she took water, while in her left hand she took the words. The water she sprinkles to the right, while the words she speaks toward the left:
§25 “May good enter the house. May it seek out the evil with (its) eyes and cast it out. May the pure water cleanse the evil tongue, impurity, bloodshed, sin, curse (var. adds: threat, [and] common gossip). Just as the wind blows away the chaff and carries it across to (var. into) the sea, let it likewise blow away the bloodshed and impurity of this house, and let it carry it across to (var. into) the sea.
§26 “Let it go into the sacred mountains. Let it go into the deep wells.” He breaks a thick loaf and libates wine. He draws water seven times and pours (it) out. [On the eighth] time what he draws, that [he] k[eeps. Further,] two times seven stones he takes from the spring and he throws [them] in[to the …]. Into a cup he throws two times seven kappi-measures. He takes red wool and binds it to < … >.
§27 He brings the water into the house and carries that also there where all the implements are placed, and puts it on the pūriya-stands. All the paraphernalia he places before the Anunnaki-deities. He mingles (?) silver, gold, iron, tin, stone, oil, honey, baked clay implements, wicker implements, the mud of the house, (and) the mud of the gatehouse.
§28 He fashions it (–an) (into a figurine of) the Deity of Blood and seats it (–an) before the taršanzipa–. He takes all the seeds and grinds them (–at) with the millstone.
§29 He pounds (them) with the basalt (?) of the millstone and wipes them off and they fashion it (–an) (into) a kugulla–vessel. What is left over they fashion it (–at) (into) a kurtal-container and he fills it (–at) with mud. He sets it with/below the God of Blood and seats the gods thereon. He places the kugulla–vessel before the deity.
§30 He washes his hands. He takes porridge and gangati–vegetable soup. The water that he had brought from the spring he libates into the water. Afterward he libates one lamb with the water and they slit it (s throat). The blood flows into a clay basin and he sets it down before the God of Blood and recites as follows: āliš mammaš, O Anunnaki–deities, I have invoked you in this matter. (So) decide the case of this house. What evil blood is present, you take it and give it to the God of Blood. Let him carry it down to the Dark Underworld, and there let him nail it down.
§31 Before the Anunnaki–deities he opens up a Pit with a knife and into the Pit he libates oil, honey, wine, walḫi–drink, and marnuwan-drink. He also throws in one shekel of silver. Then he takes a hand towel and covers over the Pit. He recites as follows: “O Pit, take the throne of purification and examine the paraphernalia of purification.
§32 “Examine the silver, gold, iron, tin, lapis lazuli, and carnelian with (your) scales. What the God of Blood has said, the exorcist has set it all up. But since the exorcist set up the implements of the gods, … the exorcist … […] broke, and he cast it into the hearth.
§33 “But if you (O Anunnaki) do not decide the case of this house fairly may the earth below you become the ‘striker’ and may the sky above become the ‘crusher,’ and may the sky (?) crush [you (?)] therein.23 May no one break a thick loaf for you and may you not taste the fragrance of cedar!”
§34 He takes three birds and offers two of them to the Anunnaki deities, but the other bird he offers to the Pit and he says as follows: “For you, O Primordial Deities, cattle and sheep will not be forthcoming. When the Stormgod drove you down to the Dark Underworld he established for you this offering.”
§35 He cooks the birds with fire (and) places them before the deity. He also places PIḪU-beer before the deity for drinking and provides four straws. He places assorted seeds before the deity: barley, wheat, šeppit-grain, p[arḫ]uena–grain, chick peas, broad beans, lentils, karaš-grain, malt, beer–bread, coriander, apr[ico]t (?), white cumin, black cumin, titapala–seed, salt, lakkarwan–plant, šeniya(?)–plant, a little (of) [ea]ch, and all these [he …].
§36 The priest [ta]kes […]. For the PIḪU–beer for drinking […] he makes the offering rounds [for the god]s. Day one is finished.
§37 [In the morning (?)] the exorcist [tak]es one sheep, one container of PIḪU–beer, one thick loaf, wine, […] and goes into the house. […] he prepares. […] he inscribes (?). The earth […] he says as follows:
§38 “[Memešarti of Heaven] and [Earth], Moon God, Išḫara, — gods [of perjury, curse, si]n, (and) bloodshed — I have […]–ed [you …] … he (?) comes.”
§39 [this § is too fragmentary for translation]
§40 “Push yourselves back! O Dark Underworld, restrain their inclination and swallow down the bloodshed, sin, impurity, perjury, evil step (?) (lit., “foot”) and common gossip of the house (and) city.”
§41 He cooks the liver and cuts it (in half). He also breaks thick loaves and lays them upon the hole and upon the hearth. He also libates wine and pours PIḪU–beer for drinking and he provides straws. But no one drinks!
§42 He says, “Memešarti of Heaven and Earth, Moon God, Išḫara — gods of perjury, curse, and death — who (ever) is hungry, who (ever) is thirsty (among) the gods, come, eat and drink, and join with me. From the house and city may you cleanse the evil impurity, bloodshed, perjury, sin, and curse. He bound them, (each evil’s) feet and hands, so let the Dark Underworld keep them in!”
§43 Those who are in the house, the guardians of the hearth, sit down and they eat the fat but they do not drink the PIḪU–beer. The exorcist comes back into the city and goes into the house and bows to the gods. He offers porridge, gangati–vegetable soup, beer, and wine to the gods.
§44 And he says as follows: “O Anunnaki–deities, I have just been on the steppe.… […] restrain! O Memešarti of He[av]en and Earth!
For you (gods) PIḪU–beer (has been) poured out for drinking. Let them bind them (var. him) (with (?)) a ḫaputri to the evil impurity, perjury, sin, bloodshed (and) curse. Let it pull those forward, and may you push them from behind.
§45 The exorcist stands a ram and a ewe before the gods and says as follows: “The ram mounts the ewe and it becomes pregnant. Let this town and house become a ram, and in the steppe let it mount the dark earth and let the dark earth become pregnant with the blood, pollution, and sin. Just as the pregnant woman and ewe give birth, let this city and house bear evil blood in the same way, and let the Dark Underworld keep it in.
§46 “As the downpour washes urine and mud from the city, (as) the water washes the roof, and flows down the rain gutters, let this ritual likewise clean away the evil tongue of this city (and) house and let the downpour carry it into the sea.”
§47 When he is finished, the exorcist sets the ritual paraphernalia on the copper vessel. He sets the gods thereon and picks it up and carries it to the steppe. He settles the deities where (the spot) is marked, and their ritual paraphernalia he sets before (them). He libates wine. He offers one lamb and eight birds to the Anunnaki-deities. On three hearths he burns (them) together with flat breads, cedar, oil and honey and he libates wine and says as follows:
§48 “O Anunnaki–deities, your tribute has just been set up. Accept these offerings to you. Chase out the bloodshed, impurity, sin, perjury, (and) threat of the house and carry them down (with you to the Dark Underworld).
§49 “You, O Primordial deities, who […] come and [turn (?)] down from that […].”
§50 Tablet One finished. [When they cleanse a house of] bloo[dshed, impurity, sin, perjury (and) threat, this is its treatment.]
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 446; Duplicates: A = KUB 7.41 (MH/NS), B = KBo 10.45 (MH/NS), C = KUB 41.8 + 251/w (MH/NS), D = KUB 12.56 (MH), E = IBoT 2.128 (MH/NS), F = KBo 7.57, G = 218/v, H = 427/t, I = lll2/u, J = 208/u, K = 1621/u, L = 729/t, M = KBo 39.12. Edition: Otten 1961:114–157. Discussion: Hoffner 1967:391; Moyer 1983:21–24.
THE STORM GOD AT LIḪZINA (1.69)
Billie Jean Collins
This is a mythological text belonging to the group of Anatolian myths known as the missing deity myths. The original composition dates to the period of the Hittite Old Kingdom. The supreme Storm God is the deity whose absence is the focus of this particular narrative. Presumably the Storm God absented himself in the first column of the tablet, after which chaos ensued for man and livestock. When the text picks up in col. ii, a ritual incantation is underway that successfully contains the evils resulting from his absence in copper cauldrons lying beneath the sea, where they can no longer cause harm. Mankind is thus restored. What follows then is a resumption of the mythological portion of the narrative relating the Storm God’s interlude in the town of Liḫzina, where he spent his time cultivating crops and fruit trees. He makes a triumphal return from Liḫzina, meeting nine divinities on the way, who inquire of his whereabouts. His supremacy is proclaimed and sacrificial animals are assembled for a celebration. Col. iv may have contained details of this celebration.
§2´ The palms [gave] it [to] the fingers, the fingers [gave] it to the nails, the nails gave it to the dark e[arth].
§3´ The dark earth [carried] it to the Sun God, and the Sun God carrie[d] it to the sea.
§4´ “In the sea are lying cauldrons of copper. Their lids (are) of lead. a [Everything (?)] he put therein: he put a demon (tarpin), b he put par[– …], he put bloodshed, he p[ut] ḫapanzi,
§5´ he put “red,” he put tears, he put […], he put …,6 [he put] fog, he put “white,” he p[ut] disease.
§6´ It became luminous on the human’s [entire (?)] body: On <his> head ditto (i.e., it became luminous), on the eyes ditto, on the walulaša–s ditto, on the white[s] of the eyes ditto, on his forehead ditto, [on] the eyebro[ws] ditto, and on the eyelashes [ditto]. As (he was) formerly, just so did he become [again (?)].
§7´ The Storm God went and keeps striking t[hem (?)] and he kills him […]. [In] Ziḫz[ina] he worked [the land (?)] and he harvested it.
§8´ He planted an orchard and [opened (?)11 it]. He [came] back from Liḫzina.
§9´ The Storm God [met] nine lesser gods on the road, and they bowed to him (saying), “O Storm God, [we were searching (??)] for you. Where were you?” (He replies,) “In Liḫzina [I worked the land (?)] and I harvested it. I planted an or[chard] and [I] ope[ned (?)] it.”
§10´ (They reply,) “Leave (it). In the fallow land the […] of things/words is/are weak. W[e] are small, we are […], we are in the land … […].” The Storm God their father […] them/it and [he] conquered the lands
§11´ Down in the holes […] them/it and they assembled an ox, [they assembled] sheep, they assembled human beings.
§12´ […] Ziḫz[ina …]
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 331; KUB 33.66 (OH/MS). Discussions: Haas 1993:67–85; Hoffner 1968b:61–68; 1973a:197–228; Josephson 1979:177–184; Laroche 1965:70–71; Moore 1975:180–183; Moyer 1983:19–38; Otten and von Soden 1968:27–34.
ESTABLISHING A NEW TEMPLE FOR THE GODDESS OF THE NIGHT (1.70)
Billie Jean Collins
This is a four column tablet composed in the period of the Hittite Empire. It is the first of two tablets. The second tablet is not preserved, although the first tablet has survived in four recensions. The main tablet describes the procedure for establishing a satellite temple for the Goddess of the Night. Her cult was centered in Kizzuwatna in southeastern Anatolia, and thus many Hurrian offering terms appear in this text. The nature of this deity is ambiguous.2
§1 Thus says the priest of the Deity of the Night (var. [Thus says mNÍG.BA–dU] the Babylonian [scrib]e (?) and Ulippi, priest of the Deity of the Night).4 If a person becomes associated with the Deity of the Night in some temple of the Deity of the Night and if it happens that, apart from that temple of the Deity of the Night, he builds still another temple of the Deity of the Night, and settles the deity separately, while he undertakes the construction in every respect:
§2 The smiths make a gold image of the deity. Just as her ritual (is prescribed) for the deity, they treat it (the new image) for celebrating in the same way. Just as (it is) inlaid (?) (with) gems of silver, gold, lapis, carnelian, Babylon–stone, chalcedon (?), quartz (?), alabaster, sun disks, a neck (lace), and a comet (?) of silver and gold — these they proceed to make in the same way.
§3 One sun disk of gold of one shekel (weight), its name is Pirinkir. One gold navel. One pair of gold purka– — they are set with Babylon stone. The priest assigns these to the smiths as their task. One (vessel) for “carrying forth” (made) of stone inlaid (?) with silver, gold, lapis, carnelian, Babylon stone, quartz (?), NÍR-stone, (and) alabaster.
§4 Two broaches of iron inlaid with gold, two pegs of iron, two ḫalwani–vessels of silver, two cups of silver, two ētmari– of silver, two ētmari– of bronze (and) a potstand of bronze are included. Six sun disks of bronze, among them three inlaid with silver and three inlaid with gold. Two knives of bronze, two pairs of bronze GÌR.GÁN-vessels, one set of bronze cymbals (?), one set of tambourines (?) either of boxwood or of ivory, one drum.
§5 One bull’s horn (full of) fine oil, one set of cups either of boxwood or of ivory. One set of combs either of boxwood or ivory. Two wooden stands, two wooden tables, two wooden potstands. One set of kišḫita–chairs, six šekan in height — they are doubly pazzanān–ed. One set of kišḫita–chairs for sitting. One footstool, one set of wooden tarmalla.
§6 They take red wool, blue wool, black wool, green wool and white wool and they make two pair of āzzalli–. They again take blue wool, red wool, black wool, green wool and white wool and they make a šuturiya. They nail two bronze pegs into the entryway of the courtyard of the (new) temple — one on one side and one on the other side. The šuturiya (is made to) hang down (from them). One basket (?) either of wicker or of tamalata. One (bolt of[?]) ḫūpara–fabric, one red scarf, two bowls (?) of wine.
§7 These NÍG.BA–dU dispatched: One door, one […, two …] — one for setting down and one for carr[ying] forth […] — one set of small bed(s) of boxwood […], one bronze cutting implement, one bronze–handled pitcher for viewing, one bronze […]–vessel, one small copper cauldron, seven TAKITTUM of bronze, one small bronze wash basin of one mina weight for the washing of the deity.
§8 One gathered garment, one trimmed tunic, one hood, one cap, one kaluppa–garment, one set of belted tunics, one set of silver broaches — these are (the garments) of a woman. One garment, one set of tunics, one set of Hurrian tunics, one trimmed (and) ornamented cloth belt, one trimmed tunic, one set of robes, one set of ŠATURRATU–garments, one set of belted tunics, one bow, one quiver, one axe and one knife — these are (the garments) of a man. When they complete the making (of) the deity (’s image), all this they arrange in (its) place. The officiant who is settling the goddess separately, the priest and the katra-priestesses wash on the following day. (Thus) that (first) day passes.
§9 When on the morning of the second day the Sun God has not yet risen, they take these things of his from the house of the officiant: One skein/strand of red wool, one skein/ strand of blue wool, one plain (i.e. undyed) wool, one shekel of silver, one (bolt of[?]) gazzarnul fabric, a small amount of fine oil, three flat breads, one pitcher of wine. They go for drawing to the waters of purification and they draw the waters of purification. They carry them to the temple of the Deity of the Night from the temple of the Deity of the Night — (that is from) the temple of the Deity of the Night which is being built to that (old) temple of the Deity of the Night. They set it (the water) on the roof and it spends the night (lit., sleeps) beneath the stars. On the day on which they take the waters of purification, (they attract) the previous deity with with red wool and fine oil along seven roads and seven paths from the mountain, from the river, from the plain, from heaven and from the earth.
§10 On that day they attract (lit., pull) (the deity). They attract (lit. pull) her into the previous temple and bind the uliḫi to the deity (’s image). The servants of the deity take these things: One skein/strand of red wool, one skein/strand of blue wool, one plain (i.e. undyed) wool, one white scarf, one gem, one kirinni-stone, one shekel of silver, a little fine oil, five flat breads, two mūlati–loaves of ½ handful (of flour), one small cheese, one pitcher of wine — these they take for the ritual of “pulling up.” One skein/strand of red wool, one skein/strand of blue wool, one loop of white wool, two mūlati–loaves of ½ handful (of flour), five flat breads, a little fine oil — these they take for the ritual of dupšaḫi–.
§11 One white scarf, one skein/strand of blue wool, one skein/strand of red wool, one plain (i.e. undyed) wool, one set of blankets four layers thick, two shekels of silver of which one shekel is for the ritual pit and one shekel is for the gangata–, ten flat breads, two mūlati-loaves of ½ handful (of flour), one small cheese, a little fine oil, ½ handful of vegetable oil, ½ handful of honey, 1½ handfuls of butter, one wakšur of wine, and either a lamb or a kid — these they take for the ritual of blood. Five flat breads, three mūlati–loaves of ½ handful (of flour), one measure of wine and one sheep they take for the ritual of praise. Twenty flat breads, two mūlati–loaves of ½ handful, one measure of wine, ½ handful of vegetable oil, ½ handful of honey, ½ handful of butter, one handful of barley flour, one lamb — these they take for the ambašši– ritual. All this they arrange each in (its) place. The second day is finished.
§12 On the third day, at dawn, the officiant comes into the temple first thing in the morning. The stars are still standing (in the sky). Then they bring the waters of purification down from the roof and the officiant enters into the presence of the deity and bows to the deity. He then proceeds with the ritual of “pulling up.” The priest pulls the deity up from the pit seven times.a The officiant also pulls (the deity) up seven times.
§13 Furthermore, they come forth from the temple into the storehouse. In the storehouse they perform the dupšāḫi– ritual. For the dupšāḫi– ritual they take one mūlati–loaf, but the single mūlati–loaf that remains they take later for the dupšāḫi– ritual (or) for the ritural of praise. Wher (ever) it is acceptable to the officiant, he goes thither. But when on the evening of that day a star rises (lit., leaps), the officiant comes into the old temple. He does not bow to the deity. He proceeds with the ritual of blood. They offer the ritual of blood with a bird. Afterward they offer either a kid or a lamb. They …14 the officiant, and he stands up.
§14 He then proceeds with the ritual of praise. They make the sacrifice of praise with a sheep. Further, they purify the officiant along with the deity with silver and gangati-vegetable. Af[ter]ward, they burn the lamb for the ambašši– (ritual). The o[ffici]ant bows and goes back home to his house.
§15 During the [night on that da]y, while the Sun God is still standing (in the sky), the servants of the deity [take these (things): one skein/ strand] of red wool, one skein/strand of blue wool, one plain (i.e. undyed) wool, [one shekel of silver, one (bolt of[?]) gazza]rnul fabric, three flat breads, one pitcher of wine, a [l]ittle fine oil. They go to the waters of [purif]ication and the waters of purifica[tio]n they bring to the old temple. They set it on the roof and it spends the night (lit., sleeps) [be]neath the stars. But those things (also they take): one sheep, one moist bread of ½ ŠĀTU, five loaves (made of) GÚG of a handful (of flour), three oil cakes of ½ handful, one mūlati–loaf of ½ handful, ten flat breads, three ḫaršpauwant-breads, their flour of ½ handful, gangati-soup, porridge, chick pea soup, broad bean soup, lentil soup, euwan-stew, stew of ARSANNU-meal, each of ½ handful, dried fruits, a small quantity of each, cress, ŠU.KIŠ-herb, a little fine oil, two skeins/strands of red wool, two skeins/strands of bl[ue] wool, one plain (i.e. undyed) wool, one jug of beer, one pitcher of wine — these they take up to the roof for the wellbeing (of) Pirinkir. One shekel of silver for the pit, two skeins/strands of red wool, two skeins/strands of blue wool, two plain (i.e. undyed) wools, a little fine oil, ½ handful of vegetable oil, ½ handful of butter, ½ handful of honey, one (bolt of[?]) gazzarnul fabric, one mūlati–loaf of ½ handful, three oil cakes of ½ handful, one loaf (made of) GÚG, one sweet bread of a handful, twenty flat breads, two ḫutḫūtalla-breads of ½ handful, three ḫaršpauwant-breads, their flour of ½ handful,
§16 gangati-vegetable soup, porridge, chick pea soup, broad bean soup, lentil soup, euwan-stew, stew of ARSANNU–meal, each of ½ handful, dried fruits, a small quantity of each, one SŪTU–measure of barley flour, one sheep, one jug of beer, one pitcher of wine, cress, ŠU.GÁN-herb — these they take inside before the deity (for the ritual) of wellbeing. The officiant prepares a gift for the deity, either a neck (lace) of silver, or a “wannuppaštalla–star” of silver. Day three is finished.
§17 But when on the fourth day a star comes out (lit., leaps), the officiant comes into the temple and looks after Pirinkir. For Pirinkir they offer the ritual of wellbeing. But when they celebrate it, then they bring the deity down from the roof and for her they scatter dough balls and fruits and they bring her (i.e. the divine image) into the temple.
§18 Inside, before the deity they offer for well-being. The officiant rewards the deity, the priest and the katra–women. The officiant bows and goes out. Day four is finished.
§19 On the fifth day when it is morning, they take five flat breads, one mūlati–loaf of ½ handful, gangati–vegetable soup, cress, ŠU. KIŠ-herb, one pitcher of beer. They offer [to the deity for tuḫal]zi. The officiant […] does not come again. The [ri]tual of the old temple is finished.
§20 The new temples which have been built […] because they were turned in, and them […]. They wave […] and a lamb. Afterward […] they wave. A new gold ❐garment❒ […] together with her implements they carry into the new temple and set it down on the table from the basket (?) thusly.
§21 When those <perform> the tuḫalzi ritual in the temple of the old deity, they pour fine oil into the tallai–container and he speaks thus to the deity: “You, honored goddess, protect your person/body, divide your divinity, come to these new temples, take an honored place.” When she goes and take<s> the aforementioned place, then they pull the deity out from the wall with red wool seven times and he sets the uliḫi in the tallai–container of fine oil.
§22 The tallai–container is stoppered, and they carry it into the new temple and set it down apart. They do not put it with the deity.
§23 If it is acceptable to the officiant, on the day on which they offer tuḫalzi in (?) the old temple, on that day they also attract (lit., pull) the new deity into the new temples. If it is not acceptable to him, then they will attract (lit., pull) her on the second day. These (things) they will take for the attracting (lit., pulling): One skein/strand of red wool, one red scarf, a little fine oil, a tallai–container, twenty flat breads, two mūlati–loaves of ½ handful, one small cheese, one pitcher of wine. They go out to the river.
§24 They attract (lit., pull) the deity from Akkad, from Babylon, from Susa, from Elam, from Ḫursagkalamma to the city which she loves, from the mountain, from the river, from the sea, from the valley, from the meadow, from the ušarunt–, from the sky, from the earth by means of seven roads and by means of seven paths. The officiant goes behind.
§25 When they are finished attracting (lit., pulling) the deity, the tents have already been constructed before the river, and they carry the uliḫi– into the tents and set it on the wicker table. They (also) set (down) a little fine oil, a naḫzi–measure of vegetable oil, a naḫzi– of honey, a naḫzi– of fruit, twenty flat breads, three mūlati–loaves of ½ handful, three oil cakes of ½ handful, three small cheeses, one handful of barley flour, three pitchers of wine.
§26 They offer the ritual of blood with a kid. Afterward, they offer the ritual of praise with a lamb. Afterward the lamb is burned for the ambašši– (ritual). Afterward, with (the help of) a table man, they bring for the deity all the stews, one warm bread of ½ ŠĀTI, one loaf (made of) GÚG, one sweet bread of one handful, one jug of beer, one pitcher of wine and give to the deity to eat. Then they carry the uliḫi– into the house of the officiant with (the accompaniment of) a drum and cymbals (?). They scatter sour bread, crumbled cheese and fruits down for him/her. Then they circle the deity with a ḫūšti-stone. Then they seat the deity in the storehouse.
§27 For the ambašši– (ritual): One lamb, twenty flat breads, one mūlati–loaf of ½ handful, one oil cake of ½ handful, one handful of barley meal, ½ handful of vegetable oil, ½ handful of ghee, ½ handful of honey, ½ handful of fruit are arranged. They dedicate the lamb to the deity for the ambašši– (ritual). Then they bring in the uliḫi– for the deity and they bind the uliḫi– to the new deity. There is no ritual of blood and no ritual of praise. The officiant leaves.
§28 Those take one skein/strand of red wool, one skein/strand of blue wool, one shekel of silver, one (bolt of[?]) gazzarnul fabric, one plain (i.e. undyed) wool, a little fine oil, three flat breads, one pitcher of wine and they go to the waters of purification. They carry the waters of purification to the new temple and set them on the roof and they spend the night (lit., sleep) beneath the stars. On that day they do nothing (more).
§29 Those ones take twenty flat breads, two mūlati–loaves of ½ handful, three oil cakes of ½ handful, three ḫaršpauwant–breads, their flour (is) a tarna– in weight, porridge, gangati-vegetable stew, euwan–stew, chick pea soup, broad bean soup, stew of ARSANNU-meal, each of ½ handful of flour, cress, ŠU.GÁN-herb, one jug of beer, one pitcher of wine, one moist bread of ½ ŠĀTI, one loaf (made of) GÚG, one sweet bread (of) one handful, and a little fruit.
§30 The uliḫi– which had been brought from the temple of the old (deity), they open that tallai-container and they wash the wall of the [tem]ple with this water. They mix that [in] with the old fine oil of the tallai–container and they wash the wall with that. The wall (is) pure. But the officiant does not come (in).
§31 The old uliḫī– they bind to the red [s]carf of the new deity.
§32 When at night on the second day (of the ritual) a star comes out (lit., leaps), the officiant comes to the temple and bows to the deity. They take the two daggers that were made along with the (statue of) the new deity and (with them) dig a ritual pit for the deity in front of the table. They offer one sheep to the deity for enumaššiya and slaughter it down in the hole. However, there is no [pulling] from the wall. The table (that) had been built they remove (?). They bloody the golden (image of the) deity, the wall and all the implements of the new [dei]ty. Then the [ne]w deity and the temple are pure. But the fat is burned up. No one eats it.
colophon: Tablet One. The word of the priest of the Deity of the Night. When someone settles the Deity of the Night separately, for her/ it this is the ritual. Not finished. Hand of Ziti, son of Mr. “Gardener” written under the supervision of Anuwanza, the eunuch.
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 481. Duplicates: A = KUB 29.4 + KBo 24.86; B = KUB 29.5; C = KUB 12.23; D = KBo 16.85 + KBo 15.29 (+) KBo 8.90 (+) KUB 29.6 + KUB 32.68 + KBo 34.79 (edited as 102/f by Otten and Rüter 1981:123, 127f.). Edition: Kronasser 1963. Discussions: Beckman 1983:169; Carruba 1971:355; Haas 1993:74–76; Haas and Wegner 1979; Hoffner 1967; Lebrun 1976:28–31; Ünal 1993.
B. ROYAL FOCUS
1. EPIC
THE QUEEN OF KANESH AND THE TALE OF ZALPA (1.71)
Harry A. Hoffner, Jr.
The Queen of Kanesh
The Queen of Kanesh in the course of a single year gave birth to thirty sons. She said: “What a multitude (?) a I have begotten!” She filled (the interstices of) baskets with grease,3 put her sons in them, and set them into the river. b The river carried them down to the sea, to the land of Zalpuwa.6 The gods recovered the children from the sea and raised them.
After several years had passed, the queen gave birth again — (this time) to thirty daughters. These she raised herself. The sons are on their way back to Neša, driving a donkey. When they reached the city of Tamar[mara], they say: “Heat up an inner-chamber here, and the donkey will climb (?).” The men of the city replied: “Where we came, a donkey [never (?)] climbs (?).” The sons said: “Where we came, a woman gives birth to [one or two] sons (at one time). Yet (our mother) begot us at one time!” The men of the city said: “Once our Queen of Kanesh8 gave birth to thirty daughters at one time. (Her) sons had disappeared.” The boys said to themselves: “We have found our mother, whom we have been seeking. Come, let us go to Neša (= Kanesh).” When they had gone to Neša, the gods made them look different (?), so that their mother […] did not recognize them. She gave her daughters in marriage to her sons. The older sons did not recognize their sisters. But the youngest [said]: “Shall we take [th]ese our own sisters in marriage? You must not go near them. [It is certainly not] right, that [we should] sl[eep] with them. […]
When morning came, [they] wen[t] to the city of Zalpa. […] thick bread to the Earth Goddess, the daughter of the Sungod […] The Sungod strewed meal into her mouth […], and she tasted it. The Sungod said: “[…] May it come about that the city of Zalpuwa prospers […].”
When later on war broke out, […] made peace with the grandfather of the king. […] was the king of Zalpa, and to him in that same way […] Allu[- … was] the chamberlain of the king of Zalpa. He put to death […] daughter […], and Tabarna’s […] you put to death. And my daughter to/for … […] The [grand (?)]father of the king [went (?). Towards (?)] Zalpa, in Mt. Kapa[kapa], Alluwa died in that very defeat. […] defeated [the allies (?) of] Zalpa. They […] sixty houses […] the “lord of his word(s).” And he brought them and settled them in Tawiniya. […]ed.
Hittite King gives prince Ḫakkarpili to govern Zalpa.
The men of Zalpa heard, and they let him down from the city of [… –]pina. [… –ed] them in Ḫatti peacefully. The [grand]father of the king [… ed] the city Ḫurma to the old father of the king. […] and Ḫatti. And the elders of Zalpa c asked for a son from him. He [sent] them his son Ḫakkarpili. [And] he instructed [him] as follows: “What separately […] you place, in the same way […] on whose head [he … s] a tupalan.”
When Ḫakkarpili w[ent] to Zalpa, [he … –ed] and he said to them: “The king gave this to me. He holds evil [in his heart (?)]. So make war. He sows (?) for himself […]. So let the sword cut […] down to the second and third generations.” d Now Kišwa said: “[…] defeated [them (?)] as far as Mt. Tapazzili. They defeated […] So I will request a long weapon (?). Let him give […], and indeed much.” Ḫakkarpili replied: “I will request it from the king.” Thus he said: “[…] we will […], and […] to us a weapon (?).” Kišwa came and […]
(Continuation lost in large break in the text.)
Ḫappi and Tamnaššu Incite Zalpa to Revolt.
[…] my brother […] was king […] the king of the city Zi[– …] turned […] Tamna[ššu …] m[ade …] king […] a gold throne […] this to you […] … […] the gods […]. Ḫappi [… “…] if […] let me take […] I will fill for you […] with a shovel.” He wrote (thus). He set out […] and went back to Kummanni. But Zalpa made war. He went away [to/from] the city of […] But Ḫappi [went (?)] to the city of Alḫiuta.
Ḫappi spoke to the men of Zalpa: “I am not loved by my father. I went to Ḫatti to die. Were there not 100 troops, men of Zalpa, with me? Yet they did not die.”
The Battle of Ḫaraḫšu.
The king (of Ḫatti) heard (about this). He set out (for Zalpa) and arrived at Ḫaraḫšu. The troops of Zalpa came against him. The (Hittite) king defeated them, but Ḫappi escaped. They captured Tamnaššu alive and brought him to Ḫattuša.
The Siege and Destruction of Zalpa.
In the third year the king went and blockaded Zalpa. He remained there for two years. He demanded the extradition of Tabarna and Ḫappi, but the men of the city would not give them up. So (the Hittite troops) besieged them until they all died. The king returned to Ḫattuša to worship the gods, but he left the old king there. He went up against the city (saying) “I will become your king”. Troops were with them. And he destroyed the city.
(The End)
REFERENCES
Otten 1973; Tsevat 1983.
2. HISTORIOGRAPHY
PROCLAMATION OF ANITTA OF KUŠŠAR (1.72)
Harry A. Hoffner, Jr.
Reign of Pitḫana of Kuššar
§1 (lines 1–4) (Thus speaks) Anitta, son of Pitḫana, king of Kuššar. Say: (Pitḫana) was dear to the Stormgod of the Sky. When (Pithana) was dear to the Stormgod of the Sky, the king of Neša3 was … to the king of Kuššar (= Pitḫana).
§2 (lines 5–9) The king of Kuššar ca[me] down out of the city (of Kuššar) with large numbers and to[ok] Neša during the night by storm. He captured the king of Neša but did no harm to any of the citizens of Neša. He treated [them] (all) as mothers and fathers.
Reign of Anitta, son of Pitḫana
§3 (lines 10–15) After (the death of) [Pit]ḫana, my father, in the first year I suppressed a revolt. [Whate]ver land arose (in revolt) from the direction of the east, I de[feated] them all.
§4 (lines 13–16) […] the city of Ullamm[a …] the king of Ḫatti8 c[ame (?) …] back […] in (the city of) [T]ešma I defeated. Neša f[ire (??) …].
§5 (lines 17–19) [I took] the city of Harkiuna in broad daylig[ht]. I took the city [Ullam]ma at night. [I took] the city Tenenda in broad daylight.
§6 (lines 20–26) I devoted (them) to the Stormgod of Neša. We [all]otted12 (them) to the Stormgod [of Neša(?)] (as) a de[voted thing]. Whoever after me becomes king, whoever resettles [the cities of Ullamma, Tenend]a, and Harkiuna, [the enemies of] Neša, let him be enemy to [the Stormgod] of Neša. a And he — let him be […] of all the lands. Like a lion the land […].
§7 (lines 27–29) (If) he [doe]s (any other) [harm], (if) he settles […] upon […], and [… s] it to the Stormgod […].
Year Two
§8 (lines 30–32) After (the death of) my father, [in the … year, I proceeded (?)] to the s[ea] of the city of Zalpuwa. The sea of [Zalp]uwa [was my boundary].17
§9 (lines 33–35) [I have copied] these [words] from the tablet(s) in my gate. Hereafter for all time [let no] one de[face] th[is tablet]. But whoever defaces it, [let him] b[e] an enemy of [the Stor]mgod.19
Additions to the Original Monumental Inscription in the Gate
§10 (lines 36–37) A second time Piyušti, king of Ḫattuša, came. At the city Šalampa [I defeated (?)] his auxiliary troops which he brought in (to aid him).
§11 (lines 38–48) [I … ed] all the lands […] this side of Zalpuwa by the sea. Previously Uḫna, king of Zalpuwa, had carried off (the cult statue of) our goddess (Ḫalmaššuit) from Neša to Zalpuwa, and I brought [Hu]zziya, king of Zalpuwa, back alive to Neša. P[iyusti] had [f]ortified Ḫattuša. So I left it alone. But subsequently, when it became most acutely beset with famine (?), their22 goddess Ḫalmaššuit gave it over (to me), and I took it at night by storm. In its place I sowed cress.23
§12 (lines 49–51) Whoever after me becomes king and resettles Ḫattuša, [let] the Stormgod of the Sky strike him.
§13 (lines 52–54) Toward Šalatiwara [I] tur[ned] my face. šalatiwara drew out [its] … […] (and) troops to meet me. I carried them off to Neša.
§14 (lines 55–56) I built various city (fortifications) in Neša. Behind I built the temple of the Stormgod of the Sky and the temple of our goddess (Ḫalmaššuit).
§15 (lines 57–58) I built the temple of Halmaššuit, the temple of the Stormgod my lord, [and the temple of …].25 And those goods which I had brought back from my campaign(s) I dedicated (?) to that place.
§16 (lines 59–63) I made a vow. And [I went on] a hun[t]. On the first day (I captured): two lions, seventy boars, one boar of the canebrake, and 120 (other) wild animals, whether leopards, lions, mountain sheep, wild sheep, or […], and I brought this to my city Neša.
Year Four
§17 (lines 64–67) In the following year I went to battle (again) a[gainst Šalatiwa]ra. The “man” (= ruler) of Salatiwara arose together with his sons and came against me. He left his land and his city behind and took up a position on the Hulanna River.
§18 (lines 68–72) [The army of] Neša came around behind him (stealthily) and set fire to his city. Them in[side (?) …] in the city […] his […], 1400 troops, chariots, horses, … […] … […] he drew up and marched off.
Year Five
§19 (lines 73–79) When I went on a campaign [to …], the “man” of Purušḫanda […] of his ḫengur-gift. He brought to me as a ḫengur-gift one iron throne and one iron crook. But when I returned to Neša, I brought with me the “man” of Purušḫanda. When he goes to the inner chamber, he shall sit before me on the right.31
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 1. A= KBo 3.22, B = KUB 26.71 i 1–19, C = KUB 36.98 (+) 98a (+) 98b obv.-rev.6´. Bibliography: Edition Neu 1974. Discussions: Badalì 1987; Güterbock 1936:139ff.; 1983:23–25; Otten 1961b:335–336; Hoffner 1980:291–293; Singer 1995; Steiner 1984; 1989; 1993.
CROSSING OF THE TAURUS (1.73)
Harry A. Hoffner, Jr.
§1 Thus (says) Puḫanu, the servant of Šarmaššu […] A person to him […] is dressed in a colorful tunic/garment. On his head a basket has been placed. He holds his bow (variant: a bow). He has called for help, (saying:) “What have I done? What?”
§2 “I haven’t taken anything from anyone. I haven’t taken an ox from anyone. I haven’t taken a sheep from anyone.2 I haven’t taken anyone’s male or female servants.”
§3 “Why have you (plural) treated me so and bound this yoke upon me? (Therefore) I must always bring ice3 in this basket and keep fighting (until) I destroy the land(s) with these arrows. You, (O arrow,) will plunge into (i.e., penetrate) their heart(s).”
§4 “Isn’t that opponent of mine whom you (plural) escorted to Arinna my donkey? I will sit upon him,6 and you (plural) shall escort me there!”
§5 “Who holds all the lands? Don’t I fix in place the rivers, mountains and seas? I fix the mountain in place, so that it cannot move from its place. I fix the sea in place, so that it cannot flow back.”
§6 [Beh]ind them he became a bull, and its horns were a little bit bent. I ask [him:] “Why are its horns bent?” And he said: “[…] Whenever I went on campaigns/trips, the mountain was difficult for us. But this bul[l] was [strong]. And when it came, it lifted that mountain and [m]oved it, so that we reached (?) the sea. That is why its horns are bent.”
§7 The Sungod (dess) of […] is sitting […], and he sends out messengers, (saying:) “Go to Aleppo.” Say […] to the troops: “Šuppiyaḫšu and Zidi are there. […] The goddess Inara of Ḫatti and Zidi. […] of Ḫatti […]. [… g]o, say: ‘Come (plural) to [Za]lpa! Come! […] their/ your land!’ ”
[The remainder of the tablet is too broken and disconnected for reliable translation.]
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 16a; A = KUB 31.4 + KBo 3.41, B = KBo 12.22 i 1–14, C = KBo 13.78 obv. 1–15. Editions: Otten 1963b; Soysal 1987:173–176, 179–180, 183–190. Bibliography: Hoffner 1971; Otten 1963b; Soysal 1987.
DEEDS OF SUPPILULIUMA (1.74)
Harry A. Hoffner, Jr.
Among the Hittite kings Šuppiluliuma I was the greatest conqueror. To him was due the destruction of the great and powerful rival kingdom of Mitanni and the eastward expansion of the Hittite state into North Syria during the first half of the 14th Century BCE. The story of his reign has often been told. Among the more recent attempts Güterbock 1960, Kitchen 1962, Bryce 1989, and Kempinski 1993 may be named. Letters from Šuppiluliuma to the Egyptian pharaoh Amenophis IV, which show the Hittite king’s prestige and power, were found in the corpus of Akkadian tablets found at Amarna (Moran 1992). His reign was a long one, during which he established his sons as dynastic rulers in strategic Syrian urban centers such as Aleppo and Carchemish.
The Hittite text called “The Deeds of Šuppiluliuma” (CTH 40) was composed by one of his younger sons, who reigned as his second successor under the throne name of Muršili II. A first son and successor, Arnuwanda, was sickly and ruled only a few years. This composition was part of a large historiographic work by Muršili II comprising three compositions (Hoffner 1980, Güterbock 1983). The deeds of his father, the subject of the first part, served as a kind of prologue to the second and third parts: two sets of annals of his own reign, one a chronicle of his first ten regnal years, and the second a more detailed account of his entire reign. Muršili II’s ten–year and extensive annals were edited by Goetze (1933). As might be expected, the Annals of Muršili II and the Deeds of Šuppliluliuma (abbreviated “DS”), since they are products of the same author, show many similarities in literary style.
In DS Muršili refers to Šuppiluliuma only as “my father,” and Šuppiluliuma’s father, Tudḫaliya, as “my grandfather.” Even during the reign of his father, Šuppiluliuma was active as a battlefield commander, and on at least one occasion volunteered to lead campaigns when his father was ill (fragment 14, see also 11). Among the opponents faced by Tudḫaliya and Šuppiluliuma were armies from Ḫayaša and the Kaška, both located to the north or northeast of the Hittite capital. When campaigning in this region, the Hittite king used the city of Šamuḫa as a base of operations (fragment 10). Strategic maneuvers mentioned in this text included ambush (fragments 10, 14 and 17). Although usually the battles are described in a very general way, we occasionally meet with vivid details. In fragment 15 Šuppiluliuma fought Arzawan troops in the vicinity of Tuwanuwa and Tiwanzana. The text describes how he encountered them unexpectedly, while he was driving his own chariot in advance of his own supporting chariotry, and how the enemy assaulted him with arrows. In fragment 28 a plague broke out in the Hittite army, which must have been common enough in military encampments with so many people living together in close quarters. The glorification of the Hittite king as a warrior does not exclude the mention of the role of his commanders, Lupakki, Ḫimuili and Ḫannuti, or the activities of the corps of engineers (fragment 28), whose duties included the fortifying of towns and strong points along the way. Hittite princes, brothers of Muršili, such as Arnuwanda, Zita and “The Priest,” are also mentioned by name. Rarely, even the name of an enemy commander — such as Takuḫli the Hurrian (fragment 28, A ii 15–20) — is mentioned. The author lays stress on the military organization of his father’s various opponents, calling some of them “tribal groups” (see Güterbock 1956:62 note c and Hoffner 1979). This organization especially characterizes the Kaška people, who in Muršili’s own annals are described as not being ruled by kings (Goetze 1933:88f., lines 73–75]). Such tribal fighting groups must have been quite elusive, since the author states that his father only defeated them when he was able to “catch” them (fragment 14). The Kaška enemy sometimes attacked by night (fragment 28, A i 21ff., ii 1ff.). Often the author indicates how many of such tribes or tribal groups were fighting in the confederation: nine in fragment 13, twelve in fragment 14, seven in fragment 15. This recalls the various groupings of the Israelite tribal confederacy involved in the localized wars of the Book of Judges. In one instance (fragment 13) an enemy surrenders to the Hittite army only to take up arms again behind its back and sabotage its recently built fortifications. Relocations of enemy population are also recorded. Both in this text (e.g., fragments 18, 19, 26) and in Muršili’s own annals exchanges of messages by tablet are recorded, among which are several which challenge the enemy force to combat. Similar exchanges of messages prior to battle are recorded in Judg 11:12–28. The longest messages whose contents are recorded are those exchanged between Šuppiluliuma and the Egyptian queen in fragment 28.
The surviving colophons to the various tablets reveal not only that the native title of the work was “The Manly Deeds of Šuppiluliuma” (fragment 28, colophon of E3), but also that the text of the Deeds was to be subsequently inscribed on a bronze tablet (fragment 28, colophon to copy A). Such a bronze tablet, although not containing this composition, was unearthed by Peter Neve in the 1986 season of excavations at Boğazköy (Otten 1988). It contained the full text of a state treaty between Tudḫaliya IV of Ḫatti and Kurunta of Tarḫuntašša.
A large part of the narrative is fragmentary, not lending itself to connected, easily understandable translation. We have limited ourselves therefore to the best preserved and most familiar parts. The full text with its many breaks and discontinuities may be found in Güterbock’s edition.
This composition was first recognized by Emil Forrer, who collected all fragments he could identify in Forrer 1922, 1926) under numbers 31–37. These tablets were gradually republished in cuneiform, mostly by Goetze, in KUB 14 (1926: Nos. 22, 23), 19 (1927: Nos. 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 18), 21 (1928: No. 10), 26 (1933: Nos. 73, 84), but some by Heinrich Otten and J. Sturm in KUB 31 (1939: Nos. 6, 7, 21, and 8). In addition, some fragments that Forrer had not recognized were published in cuneiform copies, in particular KUB 19: 4, 12, 47, 23: 2, 7, 8, 50, 31: 11, 25, 33 and 34. Excavations conducted by Kurt Bittel after 1931 added a large number of new fragments, almost all from Archive A in the south–east part of the acropolis. Hans Ehelolf made hand copies of some Šuppiluliuma fragments, which eventually appeared in two posthumous volumes, KUB 32 and 34.
An edition of the entire composition was published as Güterbock (1956). Further small fragments have continued to be identified since 1956, but none which adds appreciably to the text base used by Güterbock. Güterbock’s numbering of the fragments has been retained. But since not all fragments are sufficiently well–preserved to allow coherent translation, there will be gaps in the numbering of fragments translated here.
Second and Third Tablets (Fragments 9–17)
(Fragment 10, D col. i) [beginning broken]
(2) When my father ma[rched on], he [did not] meet the Ḫayaša enemy in [the land of …]. My father went [after the Ḫayaša] enemy, but again he did not [meet] him. (Instead) he met the Kaška enemy, all of their tribal troops, in [the midst of the land]. The gods stood by him: [the Sun Goddess of Arinna], the Storm God of Ḫatti, the Storm God of the Army, and Ištar of the Battlefield, (so that) the en[emy] suffered many casualties. He also [took] ma[ny] prisoners and brought them back to Šamuḫa.
(11) Again [my] fa[ther] set out from [Šamuḫa]. And [in the land (?) of …] which had been laid waste by i[ts] enemy, there stood the a[rmy (?)] of the enemy. [ (Even) the …] and the shepherds [had come to] help. [My father] laid an ambush [for them] and [attacked] the Ka[ška men]. [He also attacked] the auxiliaries who had come, (so that) the Kaška troops and the au[xiliary] troops [suffered many casualties]. But the captives whom [he took were beyond counting].
(Fragment 11, A ii // B ii and C)
“[…] let him go. […] There […] because [… does not (?)] die, kill him […].” — Thus (spoke) my father to my grandfather: “O my lord, send me on that [campai]gn. Then the gods will fulfill what is in my [heart].”
(8) So my grandfather sent forth my father from Šamuḫa. [And when he (my father)] arrived in the land of Ḫatti, since [the … had been] burned down by the enemy, my father began to cast away the kunzi. And they cast it away [and] took […].…
(Fragment 13, D iv // E i) [Beginning of the column in E is broken away.]
(end of D iii) [When my father] (iv 1) heard this, he set about […].
(3) He proceeded to lay an ambush in front of [… And] he [slew (?)] the enemy who (?)] had arrived [at …]. [The Kaška men (?)] assembled nine tribal groups. [My father took away] from him [what] he was holding. (8) And everyone [went away] to his own [town]. When my father [arrived with] l[arge numbers of troops], the Kaška enemy was afraid, and they put their weapons down.
(12) Si[nce] my father had built fortifications behind the empty towns of the whole land which had been emptied by the enemy, he brought the inhabitants back, everyone to his own town, and they occupied their towns again.
(E 7) My grandfather became well again and came down from the Upper Land. And since the troops of the lands of Maša and Kammala kept attacking the land of the Ḫulana River and the land of Kaššiya, my grandfather went to attack them. My father went along too on the campaign. (13) The gods went before my grandfather, (so that) he proceeded to destroy the land of Maša and Kammala. While my grandfather [was] in the land of Kammala, my father was with him. In the rear the Kaška enemy took up arms again; and the enemy for a second time destroyed the empty towns behind which my father had built fortifications.
(D 29) Now when my grandfather [came] back from the land of Maša — the lands of Katḫariya and Kazzapa which kept destroying [towns (?)] (as) the Kaška [troops] carried away their goods, silver, gold, bronze utensils and everything — my grandfather went to those towns in order to attack (the troops of Katḫariya and Kazzapa). [Then] the gods marched before my grandfather, (so that) he destroyed (the towns of) Katḫariya and Kazzapa and burned them down. The gods marched before my grandfather, (so that) he also defeated the Kaška troops who had come to help Katḫariya — and those Kaška troops […] died en masse.
(40) When my grandfather came back from there, he went to the land of Ḫayaša. And my father was still with him. When my grandfather arrived in the land of Ḫa[yaša], Karanni (or: Lanni?), king of Ḫayaša, [came] to (meet him in) battle below (the town of) Kummaḫa. [… broken]
(Colophon of E) Third (tablet), (text) not complete, of the Deeds of Šuppiluliuma, the great king, the hero. [erasure]
(Fragment 14, F iii) [beginning broken]
(2) [… laid an] am[bush for the K]aška people. [… Piy]apili (nom.) […] they kill. [… Pi]yapili (nom.) … … […] tr[eated] nothing [badly]. (7) But [when] my grandfather heard [of the … of] Piy[apili] — since my grandfather was still [si]ck, my grandfather (spoke) thus: “[Who] will go?” My father answered: “I will go.” [So] my grandfather sent my father out.
(12) When my father arrived in the land, (he found that) the Kaška enemy who had entered the land of Ḫatti had badly damaged the land. The Kaška enemy whom my father met inside the land consisted of twelve tribal groups. The gods marched before my father, (so that) he defeated the aforementioned Kaška enemy, the tribal troops, wherever he caught them. My father took away from (the enemy) what he was holding, and gave it back to the Hittites. (22) My grandfather became well again and came down from the Upper Land. And when he arrived at (the town of) Zitḫara, he met a[ll] the troops of (the town of) […] in Zitḫara. (26) The gods marched before my grandfather, (so that) he defeated [the enemy].…
(38) [My father said] to my grandfather: [“O my lord, send] me aga[inst the Arz]awa enemy.” [So my grandfather sent my father (?)] aga[inst] the Arzawa enemy. (41) [And when] my father [had marched for] the first [day (?), he came (?) to (the town of?) K]ašḫa. [The gods] — [the Sun Goddess of Arinna, the Storm God of] Ḫatti, the Storm God of the A[rmy, and Ištar of the Battlefield] — marched before [my father] (45) [ (so that) my father defeated the] Arzawa [enemy …] and the enemy troops [died in] lar[ge numbers … [end of column, continuation of text lost]
(Fragment 15, F iv // G i) [beginning broken]
(1) [… on Mo]unt Allina [… l and […] it with (its) goods; […] bu[ilt …] again. [But when (?)] he arrived [at …], they brought [word to] my father below (the town of) […]: “The enemy who had gone forth to (the town of) Aniša, is now below (the town of) […]-išša.” (So) my father went against him. And the gods — the Sun Goddess of Arinna, the Storm God of Ḫatti, the Storm God of the Army, and the Lady of the Battlefield — marched before my father (so that) he slew that whole tribal group, and the enemy troops died en masse.
(11) Furthermore again he met six tribes in (the town of) Ḫuwana[– …], and he (var: my father) defeated these, too, (so that) the enemy troops died en masse. He met still another seven tribal groups in (the towns of) Ni[– …] and Šapparanda and defeated them, (so that) the enemy troops died en masse. Still another Arzawa enemy was out in the land of Tupaziya and on Mount Ammuna in order to attack. Anna (?) was helping (?) as an ally (?), and he attacked Mount Ammuna, the land of Tupaziya and the […] Lake, and kept its goods, along with the inhabitants, cattle and sheep. (21) When he arrived at (the town of) Tuwanuwa, he stopped below Tuwanuwa and fought against Tuwanuwa. My father defeated the enemy in (the towns of) […], Naḫḫuriya and Šapparanda. Then he [we]nt back to (the town of) Tiwanzana to spend the night, and my father spent the night in Tiwanzana.
(26) In the morning my father drove down from Tiwanzana into the land, (while) in the rear his charioteers and six teams of horses were supporting him. And as my father was driving, he encountered (?) that whole enemy all at once, and my father engaged him in battle. Then the gods — the Sun Goddess of Arinna, the Storm God of Ḫatti, the Storm God of the Army, and [Ištar of the Battlef]ield — marched before my father (so that) he (var.: my father) defeated that enemy. [And] because [the …] was [v]ery (?) large, he cast away the civilian captives, cattle and sheep [which] they had taken. (36) [When the enemy had abandoned the boot[y] (?), [he] fled and took to the moun[tain]. [And … (?)] they attacked with arro[ws]. When my father saw the attack, he drove up to Tuwanuwa [and] bound the […].… (end of tablet)
(Colophon of F) Second tablet, (text) not complete, of the [De]eds of Su[ppiluliuma …]. [Hand of (?) …]-su–ziti (?).
(Fragment 17, G iv) [beginning broken]
(1–2) … (3) against my father [ (4) Then the gods helped him, [ (so that) he defeated the enemy, and the enemy] died [en masse]. The auxiliaries (?) [… –ed] Takkuri [and] Ḫimuili […].
(7) And when he had slain the enemy, he defeated […] and made it again [into Hittite land]. Then [he went] to (the town of Anz[iliya …].
(10) And when Anzi[ilya … …]. But my father haste[ned … …]. And when my fa[ther … …, they brought word] to my father:
(14) “The enemy who was […], now [attacked (?) (the towns of) …] and Pargalla.” (17) “But besides [he attacked (?) (the towns of) …], Ḫattina, [and] Ha[– …] and holds [their goods, inhabitants], cattle and sheep, and […].” (20) When my father he[ard (this), he …] and [laid] an ambush for the enemy. [And the gods] marched before [my father, (so that) he defeated] the en[emy, and the enemy troops died] en masse.
(24) And the civilian captives, cattle, sheep and go[ods] which [the enemy held], he took away from him and ga[ve] them back [to the Hittites]. Then […] forth […] (end of tablet in G; continuation of text lost)
Fragments (18–27) Whose Tablet Numbers are Unknown
(Fragment 18, No. 4 i) (beginning of tablet) // No. 5 iv
(A i 1) The scout (?) troops of (the town(s) of) Peta [and Maḫuirašša who] had [gon]e […] … in the land of Arza[wa], tho[se] he brought back [and] settled [them again (?)] in their own lands.
(A i 4) Furthermore, while [my father (?)] was campaigning against the […]–s, (the towns of) Maḫuirašš[a, …,] and Peta rose u[p]. And he went [… into] the land of Arzawa to meet Anzapaḫḫ[addu … …]. (8) And for (?) them Anza[paḫḫddu, …,] Alaltalli, Zapalli [… …] gov[erned] these. (10) [And] my father [wrot]e [to Anzapaḫḫaddu]: “These (are) m[y subjects …], but you [ha]ve [taken them away from (?)] me. And […] [ . 1 … (14) [… for] struggle [… …”] And [he …] to him […: “…] my subjects up [in] the tow[n …”] And it happened (that) my father […] said: “Go to [the land] (of) [… and] give [me ba]ck [my subjects]. But if [you do not] deli[ver my] subjects, then be [my ene]my and be … […].” (21) […] my father […] to the people of Arza[wa …] and he […] deli[ver]ed nothing.
(23) [Then] my father consequently sent [out Ḫimui]li, the commander, [and gave him (?) troops and ch]ariots. [And Ḫi]muili we[nt, and] attacked [the land of] Ma (ḫ)uirašša [… and] held [it. But] w[hen A]nzapaḫḫaddu [and (?) hea]rd [ (this) thing], they [came] after (him) out of […] and to[ok] him [by surpri]se on the way (28) [and defeated him]. When my father [heard] of the defeat o[f Ḫimu]ili, [his an]ger ro[se, and] he mobilized the troops and chariots [of Ḫatti at once and went into the land of Arzawa. [When] he [arri]ved [in the land of] Arzawa, he [… –ed] the land of Mira [… (broken)
(Fragment 19, KBo 14.6 i) [beginning broken]
(2) […] defeated [… …]. But (the town of) Ma (ḫ)uirašši [.] and al[l the inh]abitants of Arzawa took [Mount Tiwatassa, but …] kept Mount Kuriwanda apart and [turned] it into (?) three fortified c[amps. But] the enemy held [Mount Tiwatašša] with his force. […] Alantalli [and] Zapalli [were …] below (?) Mount Tiwatašša. […] (10) He surrounded it and [besieged (?)] it. [And] when [he] besieged it, […] came [wi]th troops and chariots, and he […].
(13) When my father heard [thi]s, [he … and] besieged the mountain. [And he wrote him: “Come], let us fight.” [But] Anzap[aḫḫaddu] did not […] come to a battle and was […]. Of the mounta[in …] held, and he […] spoke […] [broken]
(Fragment 20, KBo 14.7 i) [beginning broken]
(1) [… ch]ariot[s …].… (2) [When] my father hear[d … …], he gave [troops and ch]ariots [to Mammali] and […]. And [the enemy (?) overtook (?)] Mammali [on the] wa[y], and [captured] his troops, chariots, (and) depor[tees]. Mammali alone d[ied (?) …]. (7) My father (abandoned (?)] Mount Tiwa[tašša]. When Zapalli [and …] were [no longer (?)] besieged, they went […] into (the town of) Hapalla. [But] my father […], and so to his chariots […] (end of column, continuation of text lost)
(Fragment 25, KUB 34.23 i) [beginning broken]
(1) [… …] to the troops [… the peop]le of Ḫul[– … had] gone over [… …] kept attacking [… …] in [som]e rich tow[n (?) the … of Ḫ]atti he took away and […] their father(s), their mother(s) (and) their brothers […] to his own father, mother, and portico […] who [had gone] over to […] (10) […] (he) led (away? the population, cattle and sheep, [and] brought [them to … …]. And everyone took [… …]. But the people of Išuwa were […], and to them, to (the things that had been) carried (away), they […]–ed. But the Hittite civilian captives to them […, …] (he) took away. (16) […] … (he) left […] … (he) hrought. [… …] (he) was. But my father […] revenge against […] (20) [and] went [into the land of] Zuḫḫapa and [burned] it down: [What] was around [the town, that] he burned down, and [all] of the town of Zuḫḫapa he burned [dow]n, (too). But the civilian captives went (sg.!) [… … in]to (the land of) Ḫayaša, [… …]-ed, and they […]–ed them from Mount Laḫa.
(27) [The …] which […] in the land of Išuwa, […]; they belonged to Ḫatti. […] something to someone […] (30) […] even in the winter (he) went [and] attacked [the land of …]-šeni. And the civilian captives, [cattle, sheep, and bron]ze [utensils] which the army had left behind [in …, those bronze utensils] he brought from there. [… … …] (he) came, and in the land of Išuwa […] which [in (?)] Išuwa [… …] chariots [… [broken] [gap of about 25 lines]
(Fragment 26, KUB 34.2:3 ii) [beginning broken]
(2) from the battle […]. And the civilian captives, cattle [and sheep … …] back to the army […] whom they held back (?) […]. Then in the land of Ha[tti …] empty granaries (?) [… …] and him […] broke (?) […] 370[+ …]
(11) And when [my father … …, he sent a message] to the k[ing of Mitanni and [wrote] him thus: [“… I] came before […] (the town of) Carchemish (acc.), the to[wn …] I attacked, but to you [I wrote thus]: ‘Come, let us fight.’ But you] did not come [to battle]. So now [… …] and the land to you wi[th … …]. (20) So come and [let us] fight. […”] But he stayed in (the town of) [Wašukanni], he did not and did not [come] to a battle. [So my father went] there after [him]. (25) The harvest which was […, …] in Wašukanni …] there was no water at all […] the towns which (nom.) [… were] looted (?) […] (30) around […] with fru[it] … …]. And again [… …] to drink [… t]o my father [broken]
Tablet Seven (Fragment 28, KBo 5.6 and duplicates)
(A i 1) Then he went back to Mount Zukkuki and built (fortified) two towns: Atḫulišša and Tuḫupurpuna. While (the Hittite) built the towns, the enemy kept boasting: “Down into the land of Almina we shall never let him (come).” But when he had finished building the towns, he went into Almina, and none of the enemies could any longer resist him in battle.
(A i 9) So he set out to fortify (the town of) Almina. In the rear, in the army, a plague broke out. Then my father took a stand on Mount Kuntiya. Ḫimuili, the commander, held the river Šariya, and Ḫannutti, the marshal, held a position in (the town of) Parparra. But the corps of engineers was still fortifying Almina. And because all Kaška-land was at peace, some of the Hittite people had inns behind Kaška towns, (while) some had again gone to the town.
(A i 18) But when the Kaška men saw that there was a plague in the army, they seized the people who had again gone into their towns.
(A i 21) They killed some and seized others. Then the enemy came by night and deployed. They went to fight against all the fortified camps which the lords were holding. The gods of my father marched before the lords at whichever of the fortified camps they went for battle, so that they defeated them all, and the enemy died en masse. No one could resist the army of my father. When my father had killed the enemy, all the Kaška enemy feared him.
(A i 31) While he was fortifying Almina, he sent out Urawanni and Kuwalana–ziti, the Great Shepherd, to attack the land of Kašula. The gods of my father marched before them, so that they conquered all of the land of Kašula and brought its people, cattle and sheep before my father. There were one thousand civilian captives whom they brought. Then my father conquered all of the land of Tumanna and rebuilt it and reestablished it and made it again part of the Hittite land.
(A i 40) Afterwards he came back to Ḫattuša to spend the winter. When he had celebrated the year festival (in the spring), he went into the land of Ištaḫara. And since the Kaška enemy [had] taken Ištaḫara, Hittite territory, [my father] drove the enemy out of it and refortified the town of […], Manaziya[na (?)], Kalimuna, and the town of […] and reestablished them and made them again part of [the Hittite land]. And when he had reestablished [the land of Ištaḫara], he came back to Ḫattuša to spend the winter.
(A ii 1) Tribal troops came en masse and attacked his army by night. Then the gods of his father marched before my brother, so that he defeated the tribal troops of the enemy and [killed] them. And when he had defeated the tribal troops, [the land] of [the enemy] saw him, and they were afraid, and all the lands of Arziya and Carchemish made peace with him, and the town of Murmuriga made peace with him (too).
(A ii 9) In the land of Carchemish, Carchemish itself, as the one town, did not make peace with him. So the Priest, my brother, left six hundred men and chariots and Lupakki, the commander often of the army, in the land of Murmuriga, (while) the Priest came to Ḫatti to meet my father. And since my father was in the town of Uda performing festivals, he met him there. (A ii 15) When the Hurrians saw that the Priest was gone, the troops and chariots of the Hurrian land came — Takuḫli, the amumikuni, was among them — and surrounded Murmuriga. And they were superior to the troops and chariots of Ḫatti who were there.
(A ii 21) Egyptian troops and chariots came to the land of Kinza, which my father had conquered, and attacked the land of Kinza (Kadesh). My father was informed: “The Hurrians have surrounded the troops and chariots that are up in Murmuriga.” (A ii 26) So my father mobilized troops and chariots and marched against the Hurrians. When he arrived in the land of Tegarama, he reviewed his troops and chariots in (the town of) Talpa. Then he sent his son Arnuwanda and Zita, the Chief of the Royal Guard, from Tegarama ahead into the Hurrian country. When Arnuwanda and Zita arrived in the country, (A ii 33) [the enemy] attacked them. Then the gods of my father marched before them, [ (so that) they defeat]ed [the enemy]. But the enemy […] below the town and went [down] from the town [in order to escape (?) … the moun]tains of the land of Tegarama […]. When [my father he]ard: “He [is trying to] escape from the town ahead of time” — (A ii 42) when my father came down into the land, he did not meet the enemy from the Hurrian land (variant adds: below the town). So he went down to (the town of) Carchemish and surrounded it and (E2 6) […]–ed [… on this side] and that side, (so that) he [surr]ounded it [completely]. The river […] below the place […] ships … […] (he) took, then […] [broken]
(A iii 1) While my father was in the land of Carchemish, he sent Lupakki and Tarhunta (?)–zalma into the land of ʿAmqa. They went to attack ʿAmqa and brought civilian captives, cattle and sheep back to my father. (5) When the people of Egypt heard of the attack on ʿAmqa, they were afraid. And since their lord Nibḫururiya (=Tutankhamun) had just died, the Queen of Egypt (=Ankhesenamun), who was the king’s wife, f sent a messenger to my father (10) saying: “My husband has died, and I have no son. They say you have many sons. If you will give me one of your sons, he will become my husband. I do not wish to choose a subject of mine and make him my husband … I am afraid.” (16) When my father heard this, he convened the Great Ones for council (saying): “Nothing like this has ever happened to me in my whole life.” (20) My father sent Ḫattuša-ziti, the chamberlain, to Egypt (with this order): “Go bring back the true story to me. Maybe they are trying to deceive me. Maybe (in fact) they do have a son of their lord. Bring back the true story to me.”
(A iii 26) (In the meantime) until Ḫattuša-ziti came back from Egypt, my father finally conquered the city of Carchemish. He had besieged it for seven days. Then on the eighth day he fought a battle against it for one day and [took (?)] it in a terrific battle on the eighth day, in [one] day. And when he had conquered the city — since [my father] fear[ed] the gods — on the upper citadel he let no one in[to the presence (?)] of (the deities) [Kubaba (?)] and LAMMA, and he did not intrude into any [of the temples]. (Rather,) he bowed (to them) and gave […]. But from the lower town he removed the inh[abitants], the silver, gold, and bronze utensils and carried them to Ḫatti. (42) And the civilian captives whom he brought to the palace numbered three thousand three hundred and thirty, (E3 iii 15) [whereas] those whom the Hitti[tes] brought (home) [were beyond counting]. Then [he …] his son Šarri-Kušuḫ and [gave] him the land of Carchemish [and] the city of [Carchemish] to govern and ma[de] him a king in his own right.
(E3 iii 21) When he had e[stablished] Carchemish, he [went] back into the land of Ḫatti and spe[nt] the winter in the land of Ḫatti.
(E3 iii 24) When spring arrived, Ḫattuša-ziti [came back] from Egypt, (A iii 44) and the messenger of Egypt, Lord Ḫani, came with him. Now, since my father — when he sent Ḫattuša-ziti to Egypt — had given him these orders: “Maybe they have a son of their lord. Maybe they deceive me and do not want my son for the kingship.” — therefore the queen of Egypt wrote back to my father as follows: “Why did you say ‘they deceive me’ in that way? If I had a son, would I (A iv l) have written about my own and my land’s embarrassing predicament to a foreign land? You did not believe me and have dared to speak this way to me. My husband has died, (6) and I have no son. I do not wish to take one of my subjects and make him my husband. I have written to no other land, only to you. They say you have many sons. Well then, give me one of them. To me he will be a husband, but in Egypt he will be king.” (A iv 13) So, since my father was kindhearted, he granted the woman’s wish and set about choosing the son he would send. (end of tablet in A)
(Colophon of A) Seventh tablet, (text) not complete. Not yet made into a bronze tablet.
[Gap of 6 to 12 lines. Šuppiluliuma speaks to … Ḫani]
… [“…] (E3 iv 1) I [myself] was […] friendly, but you, you suddenly did me evil. You [came (?)] and attacked the man of Kinza whom I had [taken away (?)] from the king of Hurri–land. (5) When I heard (this), I became angry and sent my own troops and chariots and the lords. They attacked your territory, the land of ʿAmqa. And when they attacked ʿAmqa, which is your territory, you were afraid. (10) (Therefore) you keep asking me for one of my sons (as if it were my) obligation. But [h]e will probably become a hostage, and you will not make him [king].” (13) Then Ḫani (replied) to my father: “O my lord, this [is …] our land’s humiliation. If we had any [a son of the king] at all, would we have come to a foreign land and kept asking for a lord for ourselves? Nibḫururiya, who was our lord, has died. He had no son. Our lord’s wife is childless. We are seeking a son of (you,) our lord, for the kingship of Egypt. And for the woman, our lady, we seek him as her husband. Furthermore, we went to no other land. We only came here. Now, O lord, (25) give us one of your sons.” — So my father busied himself on their behalf with the matter of a son. Then my father asked for the tablet of the treaty again, (in which there was told) how formerly the Storm God took the people of Kuruštama, sons of Ḫatti, carried them to Egyptian territory, and made them Egyptian subjects, how the Storm God (30) concluded a treaty between the lands of Egypt and Ḫatti, and how they remained on friendly terms with each other. And when they had read aloud the tablet before them, my father addressed them: (35) “Ḫatti and Egypt have been friends a long time. Now this too on our behalf has taken place between t[hem]. Thus Ḫatti and Egypt will keep on being friends.” [End of tablet in E3]
(Colophon of E3) [… the table]t of the Deeds of Šuppilu[liuma]
Fragments Following “Seventh Tablet”
(Fragment 31, KUB 19.4) [beginning broken] (5) [When] they brought this tablet, they spoke thus: [“The people of Egypt (?)] killed (Šuppiluliuma’s son) [Zannanza and brought word: ‘Zannanza [died.’ ” And when] my father heard] of the slaying of Zannanza, (8) he began to lament for [Zanna]nza, [and] to the god[s …] he spoke [th]us: “O gods, I did [them no h]arm, [yet] the people of Egy[pt d]id [this to me], and they have (also) [attacked] the frontier of my land.” [broken]
(Fragment 34, A. KUB 19.13 + KUB 19.14 i) [beginning broken]
(1) […] before [… And the gods helped my father]: the Sun Goddess of Ari[nna, the Storm God of Ḫatti, the Storm God of the Army, and Ištar of the Battlefield, (so that)] he defeated the enemy. [… … he burned down (the towns of) …] and [Pa]lḫuišša […]. And [ag]ain [he went] to (the town of) Kamm[ama and] burned] down the town of [Kamm]ama.
(7) [When my father] had burned down [these] lands, he went [from there into] the land of Istaḫara. [From Istaḫara] he went into (the town of) Ḫattena, (10) [and] ascended [Mount …]-šu. And he proceeded to burn down [the land of … and the land of] Teššita. [From there] he went into (the town of) Tuḫpiliša [and ref]ortified [it]. Furthermore, while my father was there, [the people of Zida]parḫa brought (him) word: “If you, O my Lord, (15) were to go [to …] but not [to come] into the land of Zidaparḫa, [then] we would not hold out in front of the enemy.” (17) [But my father] spoke [th]us: “If I from here I were [to march] along at the foot of [Mount …]–mitta, [then I would] (have to) turn very much out [of my way.” And he] (20) [marched on] from there and went into the land of T[ikukuwa. And he] spent the night [in T]ikukuwa. [From there he (went on and)] spent the night in Ḫurna [and] burned down [the land of Ḫurna. From there he ascended Mou]nt Tiḫšina and burned [down] the land of Ḫauri[– … and came t]o the river Marass[anta]. (25) [Then he went] in[to the land of D]arittara. [And becau]se it [was at pe]ac[e (?), he did not destroy (?)] the land of Daritta[ra]. But [Pitak]katalli mobilized [… in] (the town of) Š[apidduwa (?) …], and he [came (?) against my father (?)]. But when my father [saw (?)] h[im (?)], he did [no]t wait but […
(31) My father [marched] away from there, as[cended] Mount Illuriya and spent the night in (the town of) Wašḫaya. He burned down the land of Zina[– …]. From there he (went on and) spent the night in (the town of) Kaškilušša] (35) and burned down the lands of Kaškilušša and Tarukka. From there he (went on and) spent the night in (the town of) Ḫinariwanda and burned down the land of Ḫinariwanda and Iwatallišša. From there he (went on and) spent the night (in the town of) Šapidduwa and burned down the land of Šapidduwa.
(40) When he had burned down these lands, my father went into the land of Tumanna. And from [Tuma]nna he ascended Mount Kaššû and burned down [the land of …]–naggara. And (the land of) the river Daḫara, [which] he had [con]quered, opened hostilities once again. (45) [So he] went into (the land of) the river Daḫara and burned down Daḫara and [the land of Ta]papinuwa. Then he came back [into (the town of) T]imuḫala. The town of Timuḫala was a place of pride [of the] Kaška men. He [would have] destroyed it, but they were afraid (50) [and] came to meet [him] and fell [down] to his feet; consequently, he did not destroy it, [but] made [it again part of the Hittite] land. [From there he marched away] and [went] into (the town of) […, and from there he marched] into [the town of …] [broken]
(Colophon) [… the tablet] of the Deeds [of Šuppiluliuma]. (Text) not complete.
REFERENCES
Bryce 1989; Federn 1960; Forrer 1922; 1926; Goetze 1933; Güterbock 1956; 1960; 1983; Hoffner 1979; 1980:283–332; Houwink ten Cate 1966; Kempinski 1992; Kitchen 1962; Krauss 1978; Malamat 1955; Moran 1992; Otten 1988; Owen 1981.
THE HITTITE CONQUEST OF CYPRUS: TWO INSCRIPTIONS OF SUPPILULIUMA II (1.75)
Harry A. Hoffner, Jr.
The present text derives from a single tablet found in the 1961 season of excavations at Boğazköy in the area of the House on the Slope. It was published in cuneiform copy by Heinrich Otten in 1963 in Keilschrifttexte aus Boghazköi, Heft XII, No. 38, and was partially transliterated and translated in the same year by Otten (1963a). The definitive edition was by Hans Güterbock in 1967 (see also Carruba 1968), who cites all anterior literature.
The tablet has four columns and contains two distinct compositions of related subject matter separated by a double horizontal rule near the bottom of column II, between lines 21 and 22. Both compositions describe Hittite military victories over the people of Cyprus, the first during the reign of the Hittite emperor Tudḫaliya IV (ca. 1239–1209) and the second under his direct successor Šuppiluliyama (=Šuppiluliuma II, ca. 1205–1175?), who was the last Hittite ruler reigning from Ḫattuša. Šuppiluliyama’s own military operation included the first known Hittite sea battle, followed by disembarkation on Alašiya and a land battle.
Both compositions are by Šuppiluliyama, paralleling Muršili II’s authoring of both the Deeds of his father Šuppiluliuma I and two sets of his own annals. Šuppiluliyama tells us at the close of the first text (ii 4–21) that he made an image of his father Tudḫaliya, inscribed upon it his father’s “true manly deeds,” and installed it in a permanent royal mausoleum, called in Hittite NA4ḫegur SAG.UŠ. Güterbock translated this expression as “Everlasting Peak.” The determinative NA4shows the structure was at least partly of stone, the verb “I built” (Hittite wedaḫḫun) shows it was man–made, and other texts inform us that it was reached by going “up,” that it contained a shrine–like structure called the kuntarra, and that there was an inscription in it. But it is still unclear whether it was actually an entire hilltop or mountain top, or if it was a building or complex on an elevated part of the city. The most recently published Hittite textual reference to a NA4ḫegur SAG.UŠ is found in the bronze tablet treaty between this same Tudḫaliya (IV) and King Kurunta of Tarḫuntašša. The passage is difficult, and various translations and interpretations of the incident have been proposed.3 But in it the above–mentioned characteristics of a NA4ḫegur SAG.UŠ are confirmed.
The second text in KBo XII 38 tells of a Hittite victory over Alašiyan ships, followed by further operations on Alašiyan soil. Güterbock has suggested that the originals of both texts were display inscriptions in Hieroglyphic Luwian: the first inscribed on a lost statue of Tudḫaliya, and the second on a relief of Šuppiluliyama, perhaps the famous Nişantaş relief. The latter, which is so badly worn as to be virtually illegible, is being studied by J. David Hawkins with a view to editing it. Since Güterbock’s edition of the present text, a monumental hieroglyphic text of this same Šuppiluliyama has been unearthed in the Upper City in the area known as the “Southern Citadel” (German Südburg) and published by Hawkins. It is not only not the source of the present text, but Alašiya is not mentioned among the many geographical areas it lists where the king campaigned. This fact does not necessarily call into question the historicity of the Alašiya campaign, but it is somewhat disappointing that the newly discovered inscription does not confirm and elucidate our text. Although it is true that the opening words “I am (king so–and–so)” can be found on royal hieroglyphic display inscriptions, these inscriptions are sometimes accompanied by a relief or statue which actually depicts the king in battle dress. It is this which gives meaning to the words “I (the royal figure whom you see here) am PN.” It is likely, therefore, that accompanying the second text which begins with these words was a relief or statue of Šuppiluliyama.
Since in ancient Israel it was forbidden to make an image representing God or a human ruler (see Exod 20), the mighty acts of Israelite kings were never inscribed on statues, as was the custom elsewhere in the ancient Near East. Instead the king’s acts were commemorated in song (see the song about Saul and David in 1 Sam 18:6–7) and eventually in written records (2 Chr 32:32; 35:26). The mighty acts of Yahweh, Israel’s true king, were similarly celebrated and remembered in song and story. But in addition certain artifacts associated with Yahweh’s miraculous deeds were kept in the sacred ark: the manna, the stone tablets of the law, and Aaron’s staff that budded (Exod 16:34; 25:16, 21; Deut 10:5; Num 17:25). In principle this corresponds to the commemoration of Tudḫaliya’s mighty acts on an inscribed statue.
The First Text: About Tudḫaliya
[As an example of the nature of tribute imposed by an overlord on a vassal this text sheds light on many incidental references to paying tribute to overlords. In Num 31 the Mosaic laws governing the division of plunder and the share to be given to Yahweh’s temple are regulated.]
(i 3–9) […] I seized […] with his wives, his children, [and …]. I [re]moved all the goods, [including silver, go]ld, copper and all the captured people and [bro]ught them home to Ḫattuša. I [subjugated] the land of Alašiya and subjected it to tribute payment on the spot. I imposed [the fol]-lowing as tribute upon it:
(i 10–12) Let this tribute from the king of Alašiya and the pidduri–commissioner be (owed) to the Sungoddess of Arinna and to the Tabarna, the Great King, priest b of the Sungoddess of Arinna:
(i 13–14) […] of gold, one talent of copper, twenty-five liters of gayatum–grain for the Sungoddess of Arinna;
(i 15–16) […] of gold, one talent of copper, twenty-five liters of gayatum–grain for the Stormgod of Zippalanda;
(i 17–18) [… of gold, one ta]lent of copper, three [sūtu–measures] of gayatum–grain [for the Stormgod] of Ḫatti;
(i 19–20) [… of gold, one ta]lent of copper, three sūtu–measures of gayatum–grain [for the Stormgod] of Nerik;
(i 21–23) [… mi]ll (?), utensils […] in [Ḫattu]ša they shall present.
(i 24–25) […] all […] they shall […].
(ii 1–3) […] arises […] reverent […]
(ii 4–10) [My father,] Tudḫaliya, [did] not [make] this statue; I, Šuppiluliyama, [Great King,] King of Ḫatti, son of Tudḫa[liya,] Great King, grandson of Ḫatt[ušili,] Great King, great–grandson of Muršili, Great King, made it.
(ii 11–16) And just as my father Tudḫaliya, Great King, was a true king, so I have engraved upon it true exploits in the same way. What I have not accidentally omitted, I have also not deliberately suppressed.
(ii 17–21) I built a permanent mausoleum. I made the statue and had it carried into the permanent mausoleum. I installed and appeased (?) [the statue representing the deceased king].
The Second Text: About Šuppiluliyama
(ii 22–26) I am Your Majesty, the Tabarna, Šuppiluliyama, Great King, King of Ḫatti, Hero, son of Tudḫaliya, Great King, King of Ḫatti, Hero, [gra]ndson of Ḫattušili, Great King, H[ero].
(ii 27–28) [My father,] Tudḫaliya, […]
[The bottom of column II and the top of column III are broken away.]
(iii 1–4) And my father […] I mobilized and I, Šuppiluliyama, Great King, immediately [crossed (?)] the sea.
(iii 5–9) Ships of the land of Alašiya met me in battle three times on the high seas. I defeated them. I captured the ships and set fire to them in the sea.
(iii 10–16) When I disembarked on the shore, a large number of enemy troops came against me for battle. [I defeated] them [in] b[attle …] and to me […] sent […]
[The following badly broken paragraph mentions troops and the land of Ḫatti. The rest of column III and the beginning of IV are lost.)
(iv 1–4) [My father, Tudḫaliya, Great King,] did [not] make [this statue.] Nothing belonging to any [… did I …] I, Šuppiluliyama, Great King, built for him this permanent mausoleum.
(iv 5–8) I installed and app[ea]sed (?) the statue […]. I gave … (As for) villages (to support the mausoleum) they will designate seventy.
(iv 9–14) Whoever takes (the mausoleum) away from him or subjects it to feudal duty, [the gods] who recognized Tudḫaliya (as king) will [ (punish) him (in some way)].
REFERENCES
Beal 1993; Carruba 1968; Del Monte 1991–92; Goetze 1933; Güterbock 1956; 1967; Hawkins 1990; Heinhold–Krahmer 1991–92; Hoffner 1992; Houwink ten Cate 1966; 1992; Otten 1955; 1963a; 1988; Stefanini 1992:143; Sürenhagen 1992.
3. BIOGRAPHY AND AUTOBIOGRAPHY
THE PROCLAMATION OF TELIPINU (1.76)
Th. P. J. van den Hout
The Proclamation or Decree of King Telipinu (ca. 1500 BCE) is an attempt to put an end to the inner-dynastic strife and bloodshed which seems to have held the Hittite Empire in its grip since Ḫattušili I (ca. 1600 BCE). In order to do so, Telipinu refrained from killing his own opponents, sending them away unharmed, and firmly established rules of succession (§28) and of how to deal with such offenders in the future (§§29–34). As is characteristic of Hittite literature and political thinking, the need is felt to justify this ruling by giving an historical account of the reasons that led up to this decision (§§1–27). This first part of the Decree of Telipinu, thereby, is the major source for our knowledge of the Old Hittite Empire; for an historical overview of the Old Hittite Kingdom see Gurney, CAH 2:1235–1255. The second part of the text (§§35–50) seems to deal “with an agricultural-administrative reform” (Singer 1984:103) but is much less well preserved. Being a “comparatively unreligious” document (Hoffner 1975b:53) as opposed to, for instance, the Apology of Ḫattušili (text 1.77 below) there are not as many possible links to the Old Testament as in the latter.
This originally Old Hittite composition has come down to us only in thirteenth century copies of which there may have been as many as at least seven exemplars (Starke 1985a:101). There also existed an Akkadian version of which we have fragments of two different manuscripts. Usually this Akkadian version is taken to be a translation of the Hittite original (cf. Beckman 1985:571; Starke 1985a:109–111 vs. Hoffmann 1984:8–9).
The translation basically follows the Hittite text as given by Hoffmann 1984; for criticism see the reviews by Beckman 1985 and Starke 1985a. Where relevant the Akkadian text is used and referred to in the footnotes.
Introduction
§1 (Column 1:1–4) [Thus] the Tabarna, Telipinu, Great King:
Historical outline: Labarna
[Fo]rmerly, Labarna was Great King and his [son]s, [brother]s, as well as his in-laws, his (further) family members and his troops were united.
§2 (1:5–6) The land was small but wherever he went on campaign, he held the enemy country subdued by (his) might.
§3 (1:7–9) He destroyed the lands, one after another, stripped (?) the lands of their power and made them the borders of the sea. When he came back from campaign, however, each (of) his sons went somewhere to a country:
§4 (1:10–12) The cities of Ḫupišna, Tuwanuwa, Nenašša, Landa, Zallara, Paršuḫanta (and) Lušna, the (se) countries they each governed and the great cities made progress.6
Historical outline: Ḫattušili I
§5 (1:13–16) Afterwards Ḫattušili was King and his sons, too, his brothers, his in-laws as well as his (further) family members and his troops were united. Wherever he went on campaign, however, he, too, held the enemy country subdued by (his) might.
§6 (1:17–20) He destroyed the lands one after the other, stripped (?) the lands of their power and made them the borders of the sea. When he came back from campaign, however, each (of) his sons went somewhere to a country, and in his hand the great cities made progress.
§7 (1:21–23) When later on, however, the princes’ servants became corrupt, they took to devouring their properties, they took to conspiring continually against their lords and they began to shed their blood.10
Historical outline: Muršili I
§8 (1:24–27) When Muršili was King in Ḫattuša, his sons, too, his brothers, his in-laws, his (further) family members and his troops were united. The enemy country he held subdued by (his) might, he stripped (?) the lands of their power and made them the borders of the s[e]a.
§9 (1:28–34) He went to the city of Ḫalpa, destroyed Ḫalpa and brought Ḫalpa’s deportees (and) its goods to Ḫattuša. Now, later he went to Babylon, he destroyed Babylon and fought the Hurrian [troops]. Babylon’s deportees (and) its goods he kept in Ḫat[tuša]. §1015 And Ḫantil[i] was cupbearer and he had Muršili’s sister Ḫar[apši]li for his wife. §11 Zidanta,18 <[the …, had …] …, the daughter of Ḫantili, for a wife, and he> stole up to Ḫantili and they [committ]ed an evil dee[d]: they killed Muršili and shed (his) blood.
Historical outline: Ḫantili I
§12 (1:35–38) Ḫantili got afraid (saying): “Will I be pro[tected? The go]ds pr[ote]cted him. […] … wherever (he) went, the populatio[n …] … the cities of Aš[tat]a, [Šukzi]ya, Ḫurpana, Carchemi[sh …] … [troops] they began to [giv]e and troo[ps …].
§13 (1:39–42) And [when Ḫ]antili reac[hed] the city of Tegarama a he began to sa]y: “What (is) [t]his (that) I have done? [Why] did I listen to [the words of] Zidan[ta, m]y (?) [son-in-law]? [As soon as] he (however) [reig]ned [as King], the gods sough[t] (revenge for) the blood [of Muršili24].
§14 (1:43–46) [… the H]urrian [tr]oops, chased (like) foxes in the b[ushes,] they [c]alled. [When the Hurrian enemy (?)26] came [t]o Ḫatti-L[an]d, he [… -]ed [ and …] in (?) [the l]and he roamed (?). […] … they called and the[m …].
§15 (1:47–52) (almost completed lost).
§16 (1:53–57) [… a]nd the Queen of the city of [Šukziy]a [… The Que]en was dy[in]g. [… Ilal]iuma secretly s[e]n[t] out palace [attendant]s and [… -]ed: “May the Queen of Šukziya die!”, so [they seized] her [and ki]lled (her) [together with her children28 ].
§17 (1:58–62) When Ḫantili inquired into (the case of) the Queen of Šu[kziya and her children (saying:) “Who [has] ki[lled] them?”, the Chief of the palace attendants brought word. They rounded up h[er fam]ily and [drove] them to Tega[rama].a They chased them in the bushes and [they] d[ied (?)].
§18 (1:63–65) And when Ḫantili [gre]w ol[d] and began to become a god, Zidanta killed Ḫantili’s son, [Pišeni] together with his sons, [and] his [chie]f servants he killed.
Historical outline: Zidanta I
§19 (1:66–68) And Zidanta bec[a]me King. The gods sought (revenge for) the blood of Pišeni, so the gods made him Ammuna, his begotten (son), his enemy32 and he killed his father Zidanta.
Historical outline: Ammuna
§20 (1:69–71) And Ammuna became King. The gods sought (revenge for) the blood of his father Zidanta and [they did] no[t make] him, the grain, wine, oxen (and) sheep [prosper (?)] in his hand [but it all …] in (his) hand.
§21 (Column 2:1–7) Now, the land became his enemy: the cities of … agga, [Mat]ila, Galmiya, Adaniy[a], Arzawiya, Šallapa, Parduwata and Aḫḫula. But wherever (his) troops went on campaign, they did not come back successfully. When Ammuna, too, became god, Zuru, the Chief of the Royal Bodyguard, in those same days secretly sent, of his own offspring, his son Taḫurwaili, Man of the Gold Spear, and he killed Titti (ya)’s family together with his sons.
Historical outline: Ḫuzziya I
§22 (2:8–12) He sent Taruḫšu, a courier, as well and he killed Ḫantili together with [his] sons. Now, Ḫuzziya became King and Telipinu had Ištapariya, his sister of first rank, <as his wife>. When Ḫuzziya wanted to kill them, the matter came to light and Telipinu chased them away.
Historical outline: Telipinu
§23 (2:13–15) Five (were) his br[ot]hers and he assigned houses to them (saying): “Let them go (and) live! Let them each eat (and) drink!” May nob[ody] do harm to them! And I declare: “They did evil to me, but I [will not do] evil to them.”b
§24 (2:16–19) When I, Telipinu, had sat down on my father’s throne, I went on campaign to the city of Ḫaššuwa39 and I destroyed Ḫaššuwa. My troops were in the city of Zizzilippa as well and in Zizzilippa a battle ensued.
§25 (2:20–25) When I, the King, came to the city of Lawazantiya, Laḫḫa41 was [hostile to me] and made Lawazantiya rebellious. The gods put him at my mercy. Of the Chiefs (there were) many: the Commander of Thousand, […], Karruwa, the Commander of the Chamberlains, Inara, the Commander of the Cupbearers, Kill[a, the Commander of the …], Tarḫumimma, the Commander of the Staffbearers, Zinwašeli and Lelli, and they secretly sent (a message) to Tanuwa, the Staffbearer.
§26 (2:26–30) I, [the Ki]ng, did not k[no]w [and he killed Ḫ]u[zzi]y[a] and his brothers as well. [W]hen I, the King, heard (of it), they brought Tanuwa, Taḫurwaili [and] Taruḫš[u] and the Council sentenced them to death. And I, the King, said: “[Wh]y do they die? They will hide (their) eyes concerning them!44 I, the King, made them into tru[e] farmers: I have taken their weapons from the shoulder and have given them a yok[e (?)46].
§27 (2:31–35) The blood of the whole royal family spread: Ištapari[y]a, the Queen, died, later it happened that Ammuna, the prince, died. The “Men of the Gods”, too, each said: “Behold, blood (shed) is widespread in Ḫattuša.” So I, Telipinu, summoned an assembly in Ḫattuša. From now on in Ḫattuša, let nobody do evil to a son of the family and draw a dagger on him.
Succession rules
§28 (2:36–39) King shall become a son (who is a) prince of first rank49 only. If there is no first rank prince, he who is a son of second rank shall become King. If there is no prince, (no) male, she who is a first rank princess, for her they shall take an in-marrying (son-in-law) and he shall become King.
§29 (2:40–45) Who will become king after me in future, let his brothers, his sons, his in-laws, his (further) family members and his troops be united! You will come (and) hold the country subdued with (your) might. And do not speak as follows: “I will clean (it) out,” for you will not clean anything. On the contrary, you will get involved yourself. Do not kill anybody of your!52 family. It (is) not right.
§30 (2:46–49) Furthermore, whoever becomes King and seeks evil for (his) brother (or) sister, you too are his Council and tell him straight: “This (is) a matter of blood.” Look at the tablet (that says): “Formerly, blood (shed) became excessive in Ḫattuša, and the gods took it out on the royal family.”
§31 (2:50–58) If anyone does evil amongst both (his) brothers and sisters and lays eyes on the king’s head, summon the assembly and, if h[i]s testimony is dismissed,55 he shall pay with his head. They shall not kill secretly, however, like Zuruwa, Tanuwa, Taḫurwaili and Taruḫšu. They shall not commit evil against his house, his wife (and) his children. So, if a prince sins, he shall pay with (his) own head, while they shall not commit evil against his house and his children. For57 the reason for which princes usually die (does) not (affect) their houses, their fields, their vineyards, their male (and) female servants, their oxen (and) their sheep.
§32 (2:59–65) So now, if some prince sins, he shall pay with (his) own head while you shall not commit evil against his house and his son. Giving (away) even a princes’ blade of straw (or) a chip of wood is not right. Those who commit these evil deeds, the [Chiefs of Staff (?)], (that is,) the Major-Domos, the Chief of the Palace Attendants, the Chief of the Royal Bodyguard and the Chief-of-the-Wine,59 [if?] they want to take a prince’s houses and [s]ay thus: “I wish that city to be mine,” then he commits evil against the city lord.
§33 (2:66–73) But now, from this day onwards in Ḫattuša you, palace attendants, royal bodyguards, golden-chariot fighters, cupbearers, w[aite]rs, cooks, staff bearers, grooms, commanders of a [field] ba[tallion], remember this word. Let Tanuwa, Taḫurwaili and Taruḫšu be a warning to you! [I]f someone commits evil again, either the Major Domo, the Chief of the [pala]ce attendants or the Chief of the Royal Bodyguard or the Chief of commanders of a field batallion — whether a lo[w]er (or) higher ranking one — you too, Council, seize (him) and devour him with your teeth!
§34 (Column 3:1–3) Now, in Ḫattuša they must take the Chiefs of Staff, (that is,) the Major-Domos, the Chief of the Palace Attendants, the Chief-of-the-Wine, the Chief of the Royal Bodygu[ard], the Chief of the Chariot Fighters, the Commander of the Bailiffs, the troop[s], those who are grea[t (?)] in [the King’s (?) h]ouse, [as well as furthe]rmore their subordinates.
Administrative and other reforms
§35 (3:4–6) Now, [in (the territory of) Ḫat]tuša the fortified cities [must be] protected. Do not leave them! The fortified cities [… w]ater, but divert it 10 (to) 20 times to the grain.
§36 (3:7–16) (hardly anything is preserved here; line 7 mentions “T[e]lipinu, Great King”)
§37 (3:17–33) (fragmentarily preserved; contains a list of at least “60 [+ x?] cities (and their) storehouses”)c
§38 (3:34–42) (fragmentarily preserved; contains a list of “34 cities (and their) storehouses for (fodder) mix”)
§39 (3:43–48) I made the grain abundant again […] the farmers those very fields … […] they must [s]eal. All those the population … […, but (?) let] them [not (?)] commit fraud! Beyond (their) ration (?) they kept binding either one or two cubits (?), so they drank out the country’s blood. But do not let them do (it) now! Whoever does it, may they give65 him an evil death!
§40 (3:49–54) (You) who in future will bec[om]e king after me, always seal the gra[i]n with your name. Behold, the administrators of the seal house will leave you and speak to you thus: “[… there (is) n]ot (?).67 Do not seal it, however, for yourself (?), always [se]al [it …”] And, behold, the[y will] lift you up …
§41–43 (3:55–68) [except for a few traces not preserved]
§44 (3:69–75) [Who from n]ow on [will become king after] m[e and …] … humili[ates and] says thus [to yo]u: “[…].” Do not listen! […] If you [have] harnesse[d] a deportee, you shall always compensate the equipment. The troops […,] and […] him to either your wife o[r …].
§45–47 (Column 4:1–20) [partly lost, partly too fragmentarily preserved to be translated]
§48 (4:21–26) [Wh]en [lat]er on the karpinattiš(?) of mortals took to div[id]ing …, and [they were], oh so70 disr[espectful] and therefore they were struck by the god(s). But now, from no[w on, …] if he somehow calls on them, (his) living parents because of (his) share, and whatever he calls on them with (his) mouth to share, they must throw him out of the house, and he must forfeit his own share.
§49 (4:27–29) And the procedure in case of bloodshed (is) as follows: whoever commits bloodshed, only (that) which the “lord of the blood” says (will happen): if he says “He shall die,” let him die, but if he says “He shall pay” let him pay. For the king (there will be) nothing, however.
§50 (4:30–34) (The procedure in case) of witchcraft in Ḫattuša (is) as follows: You must clear all matters of (it). Whoever within the family knows witchcraft, you must seize him from the family and bring him to the palace gate. But [wh]oever does not bring him, for that man a bad end will come.d
Colophon (4:35–36) First tablet of Telipinu. Finished.
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 19. Translation: TUAT 1/5:464–470; CAH 2/1:235–255; Discussion: Beal 1988; Beckman 1985; Bryce n.d.; Carruba 1964; 1974; Dinçol, Dinçol, Hawkins, and Wilhelm 1993; Forrer 1926; Haase 1984; Helck 1984; Hoffmann 1984; Hoffner 1975b; 1982:507–509; Melchert 1977; Singer 1984; Starke 1985a; Sturtevant and Bechtel 1935:182–200.
APOLOGY OF ḪATTUŠILI III (1.77)
Th. P. J. van den Hout
The so-called “Apology” of Ḫattušili III (1267-ca. 1240 BCE) is one of the major Hittite historical texts that have come down to us. At least eight different manuscripts must have existed among which were one-tablet and two-tablet versions, thus illustrating the relative importance the Hittites must have attached to it. All fragments have been found in the eastern storerooms of the Great Temple (Temple 1) in the Lower City of Ḫattuša/Boğazköy; this corresponds to the repeated mention of the deposition of historical texts “before the deity” (e.g. cf. below Apology §5 end). Since Götze (1925:113 n. 2), scholars have taken the peace treaty with Ramesses II in 1259 BCE as a terminus post quem for the composition of the text, because of §12b (“(Those) who had been enemies in the days of my fathers (and) grandfat[her]s, concluded peace with me”); for a late date towards the end of Ḫattušili’s reign see Tadmor (1983:37–38, 54–57), and Houwink ten Cate (1992:265–267 n. 47).
The composition is notoriously difficult to categorize as to its genre, cf. the discussion in Wolf (1967:12–22); see further Archi (1971:186), Hoffner (1975b:49), Cancik (1976:41–44), Otten (1981:3 with n. 8 and 23 with n. ad IV 1f) Güterbock (1983:30). The designation “Apology” was first used by Sturtevant in 1935 in the heading of the relevant chapter, although he spoke of a “Justification” in the introduction (1935:84). The text may be described as a decree instituting the cult of the goddess Ištar, appointing Ḫattušili’s son Tutḫaliya and future descendants as her priests, and granting tax freedom to her temple, all this more than amply justified by Ištar’s divine providence which Ḫattusili claims to have experienced in his rise to power, so that the composition takes on the character of a eulogy to Ištar, but above all an apology as well as a religious legitimization of his usurpation. The text as a whole has often been compared with the story of David and Samuel in 1 Sam 15–2 Sam 8; for details see Wolf 1967. For an historical overview of Ḫattušili’s life and times see Ünal 1974 and van den Hout 1995.
The following translation is based on the edition by Otten 1981. The main manuscript is KUB I 1+ (A), restored where necessary by its duplicates. Only twice a reading from KBo III 6+ (B) is preferred: in ii 32 and 40 as indicated in the footnotes. Variants other than merely orthographic have been noted in the footnotes as well. The division into paragraphs also follows A except for the subdivisions in §§10 (a-d) and 12 (a-b) according to the manuscripts B and F.
Introduction: Genealogy
§1 (Column 1:1–4) Thus Tabarna Ḫattušili, Great King, King of Ḫatti, son of Muršili, Great King, King of Ḫatti, grandson of Šuppiluliuma, Great King, King of Ḫatti, descendant of Ḫattušili, King of Kuššar.
Prooemium
§2 (1:5–8) Ištar’s divine providence I will proclaim. Let man hear it! And may in future His Majesty’s son, his grandson (and further) offspring of His Majesty be respectful among the gods towards Ištar!
Ḫattušili’s early youth; Ištar’s first intervention
§3 (1:9–21) My father Muršili begot us four children: Ḫalpašulupi, Muwatalli, Ḫattušili and Maššanauzzi, a daughter. Of all these I was the youngest child. As long as I was still a boy, I was a ‘one-of-the reins.’4 (Now,) Ištar, My Lady, sent Muwatalli, my brother to Muršili, my father, through a dream (saying): “For Ḫattušili the years (are) short, he is not to live (long). Hand him over to me, and let him be my priest, so he (will) live.” My father took me up, (while still) a boy, and handed me (over) to the service of the goddess, and as a priest I brought offerings to the goddess. At the hand of Ištar, My Lady, I experienced prosperity, and Ištar, My Lady, took me by the hand and provided for me.
Ḫattušili under Muwatalli; Armatarḫunta’s first lawsuit
§4 (1:22–60) When my father Muršili became god, my brother Muwatalli seated himself on the throne of his father, while I became army commander in front of my brother. My brother installed me as Chief of the Royal Bodyguard and gave me the Upper Country8 to govern. So I was in command of the Upper Country. Prior to me, however, Armatarḫunta, son of Zida, used to govern it. (Now,) since Ištar, My Lady, had shown me her recognition, and my brother Muwatalli had been benevolent towards me — when people saw the recognition of Ištar, My Lady, and my brother’s benevolence towards me, they envied me. Armatarḫunta, son of Zida, and other people as well began to cause me harm, they were evil to me, and defeat hung over me. My brother, Muw[at]alli summoned me ‘to the wheel’. But Ištar, My Lady, appeared to me in a dream, and through the dream she said this to me: “To the deity (of the process) I will leave you, so do not fear!” and through the deity I was acquitted.12 Since the goddess, My Lady, held me by the hand, she never exposed me to an evil deity (nor) to an evil lawsuit, never did she let an enemy weapon sway over me: Ištar, My Lady, took me to her in every respect. Whenever illness befell me, sick as I was, I looked on (it) as the goddess’ providence. The goddess, My Lady, held me by the hand in every respect. But, since I was a man divinely provided for, since I walked before the gods in divine providence, I never did an evil thing against man.14 You goddess, My Lady, always take me to you in every respect, wasn’t it? The goddess, My Lady, never passed me over in time of fear, she never let me down before the enemy, nor did she ever let me down before my opponent in court (or) before (my) enviers: whether it (concerned) an enemy’s word, or <the word> of an opponent or some word from the palace, it was Ištar, My Lady, who held (her) mantle over me in every respect, took me to her in every respect. Ištar, My Lady, put my enemies and enviers at my mercy and I finished them off.b
Ḫattušili’s early military successes
§5 (1:61–74) Now, when my brother Muwatalli looked into the matter, not one evil thing was left against me. So he took me back and put me in charge of all the troops (and) chariots of Ḫatti Land, and all the troops (and) chariots of Ḫatti Land I commanded. My brother Muwatalli kept sending me out, and now that Ištar, My Lady, had shown me (her) recognition, wherever I cast my glance towards enemy country, no enemy cast a glance back at me and each of the enemy countries I conquered: the recognition of Ištar, My Lady, was mine. And whoever was an enemy within the Lands of Ḫatti, I expelled him right out of the Lands of Ḫatti. Which enemy countries I conquered one after the other, while still young, these I will describe separately on a tablet and I will lay it down before the goddess.
Muwatalli moves the capital to Tarḫuntašša; Ḫattušili suppresses the Kaškaeans
§6 (1:75–76) Now, when my brother Muwatalli at the behest of his own deity went down to the Lower Land, he left (the city of) Ḫattuša behind.
(Column 2:1–30) He took up [the gods] of Ḫatti and the Manes and [c]arried them to the land of [Tarḫuntašša]. Thereupon, however, (of) all the Kaška Lands Pišḫuru (and) Daištipašša revolted. The land of Išḫupi[tta], Marišta and the fortresses they destr[oye]d. The enemy crossed the Maraššanda river and began to raid the land of Kaneš, began to ra[i]d the cit[y of …]. The cities of Ḫa[…], Kuruštama and Gazziura turned hostile on the spot. They began to raid the cities of Ḫatti, while the enemy of the land of Durmitta began to raid [T]uḫuppiya. […] the land of Ippaššana, however, was uninhabited, [so the enemy troops] penetrated as far as the land of Šuwadara. Both the cities of [Ḫakpiš] and Ištaḫara, however, escaped [but since the land] was cut off, they did not till their fields for ten years. Further, during the years that my brother Muwatalli was in Ḫatti, all Kaška Lands became hostile and they destroyed the lands of Šaddupa and Dankuwa. So he laid siege to the city of Pittiyariga. And my brother Muwatalli sent me, but gave me troops (and) chariots in small numbers. I took along auxiliary troops in small numbers from the country and went: I oppressed the enemy at the city of Ḫaḫḫa and fought him. The Lady, My Lady, marched ahead of me, I defeated him and erected a monument (?).25 What (population of the city of) Ḫattuša he held, that I took away and resettled it all. The (enemy) commanders, however, I seized and handed them to my brother. This, now, was my first manly deed (and) Ištar, My Lady, for the first time proclaimed my name on this campaign.
Ḫattušili’s further successes against the Kaškaeans
§7 (2:31–47) It so happened, however, that the Pišḫurean enemy invaded (the country), and Karaḫna (and) Marišta [were] within the enemy country. On one side the country of Takkašta was its border, on the other the city of Talmaliya was its border. Eight hundred teams of horses were (there) whereas the troops were innumerable. My brother Muwatalli sent me and he gave me one hundred and twenty teams of horses, but not even a single military man was with me. There too Ištar, My Lady, marched ahead of me, and there too, I personally conquered the enemy. When I killed the man who was in command, the enemy fled. The cities of Ḫatti Land which had been cut off, they each fought and began to defeat the enemy. A monument (?) in the city of Wištawanda I erected. There, too, the recognition of Ištar, My Lady, was mine. The weapon that I held there, I had it inlaid and I deposited it in front of the goddess, My Lady.
Ḫattušili becomes King of Ḫakpiš
§8 (2:48–68) My brother Muwatalli followed me and fortified the cities Anziliya and Tapiqqa, (then) he went right off, did not come near me at all and he let31 the troops (and) chariots of Ḫatti-Land march ahead and led them home. Then he gathered the gods of Ḫatti and the Manes on the spot, carried them down to the city of Tarḫuntašša and took (up residence in) Tarḫuntašša. To Durmitta (and) Kuruštama, however, he did not go. In these countries he left me (behind), and these desolate countries he gave me to govern. The lands of Išḫupitta, Marišta, Ḫiššašḫapa, Katapa, Ḫanḫana, Daraḫna, Ḫattena, Durmitta, Pala, Tumanna, Gaššiya, Šappa, the Ḫulana River (and their) chariots and ‘golden’ chariot fighters I commanded all. The lands of Ḫakpiš and Ištaḫara he gave me in vassalship and in Ḫakpiš he made me king. Concerning these desolate countries, which my brother had put me in charge of — because Ištar, My Lady, held me by the hand, some enemies I defeated, while others concluded peace with me.36 Ištar, My Lady, sided with me and these desolate lands I resettled on my own and made them Hittite again.
The battle at Kadesh; Armatarḫunta’s second attempt to bar Ḫattušili; Ḫattušili’s marriage to Puduḫepa
§9 (2:69–82) Now, when it happened, that my brother went to Egypt, I led for my brother on campaign down to Egypt the troops (and) chariots of those lands which I had resettled, and I commanded the troops (and) chariots of Ḫatti-Land of which I was in charge in front of my brother. But when Armatarḫunta, son of Zida, saw the benevolence of Ištar, My Lady, and of my brother towards me, they (i.e. Armatarḫunta) with his wife (and) his son then began to cast spells over me, because they were not successful in any (other) way. Even Šamuḫa, the city of the goddess, he filled with spells. When, however, I returned from Egypt, I marched to the city of Lawazantiya39 to bring offerings to the goddess and worshipped the goddess.
(Column 3:1–13) [A]t the behest of the goddess I took Puduḫepa, the daughter of Pentipšarri, the priest, for my wife: we joined (in matrimony) [and] the goddess gave [u]s the love of husband (and) w[i]fe. We made ourselves sons (and) daughters. Then the goddess, My Lady, appeared to me in a dream (saying): “Become my servant [with] (your) household!” so the goddess’ [serv]ant with my household I became.d In the house which we made ourselves, the goddess was there with us and our house thrived: that was the recognition of Ištar, My Lady. [Then] I [w]ent and [fo]rtified the cities of Ḫawarkina and Dilmuna. Ḫakpiš, however, turned hostile. I sent Kaškaeans and on my own I set it straight again. I became King of Ḫakpiš while my wife became [Queen of] Ḫakpiš.
Armatarḫunta’s downfall; Muwatalli succeeded by Urḫitešub; Ḫattušili declares war on Urḫitešub
§10a (3:14–30) Now, when it happened, that the lawsuit was somehow reopened by the palace, Ištar, My Lady, at that moment too showed (her) divine providence. The process resulted again in the verdict: They found witchcraft on Armatarḫunta, with his wife (and) his sons, and they charged him with it. He had filled Šamuḫa, the city of my goddess, with witch[craf]t, so the goddess, My Lady, made him succumb to me. And with his property, his wife (and) his son my brother turned him over to me and my brother said to me: “Šippaziti (is) not in (volved).” So, because my brother had made me triumph over [Arma]tarḫunta through the process, I did not fall back into further evil against him, and [be]cause Armatarḫunta was a blood relative of mine, (and because) moreover, he was an old man, he provoked (feelings of) pity in me [a]nd I let him go. Šippaziti, to[o], his [son], I let go. I did not harm them in any way.45 Armatarḫunta’s [wi]fe and his (other) son, however, I sent [t]o Alašiya (in exile). I took half [ (his) estate] and gave it back to Armatarḫunta. §10b (3:31–54) Because my [broth]er Muwatalli had [gi]ven [me the cities of … -]ta, Durmitta, Zip[lanta, Ḫat]tena, Ḫakpiš (and) Išt[aḫar]a [in vassalship], I resettled [… the (se) deso]late (territories). [When] my [bro]ther became [go]d — because I [co]mmanded [Ḫatt]uša and (because) he had […] me in lordship, I di[d] not [do] anything (evil) out of regard for [the love] for [m]y br[other. T]herefore, sin[ce] my brother did not have a [l]egitimate son, I took up Urḫitešub, son of a concubine. [I put] him into lordship over [Ḫa]tti Land and laid all of [Ḫattuša] in (his) hand, so that he was Great King over the Ḫatti Lands, while I was king of Ḫakpiš. With the troops (and) chariots […]. Because the city of Nerik had been destroyed since the days of (king) Ḫantili, I rebu[il]t it and (of) the countries that surrounded Nerik, [I ma]de the cities of Nera (and) Ḫaštira the border. I [s]ubdued them completely and [made them m]y tributaries. [The mountain of] Ḫaḫarwa and the Maraššanda River […], whatever they held in oppression towards Nerik (and) Ḫakpiš, I subdued them completely. §10c (3:54–79) However, when Urḫitešub thus saw the benevolence [o]f the goddess towards me, he became envious of me, he [beg]an to harm me: he took away from me all those in my service, and (all) the desolate countries which I had resettled, those too he took away from me. He humiliated me, but at the behest of the goddess he did not take away Ḫakpiš from me. Be[cau]se I was priest to the Storm-god of Nerik, he therefore did not take that (city) away from me (either). Out of regard for the love for my brother I did not react at all and during seven years I complied. He, however, sought my destruction at divine and human behest and he took away from me Ḫak-piš and Nerik. Now I no longer complied and I became hostile to him. But when I became hostile to him, I did not commit a moral offence by revolting against him on the chariot or by revolting against him within (his) house. (No,) in a manly way I declared to him: “You opposed me. You (are) Great King, whereas I (am) king of the single fortress that you left me. So come! Ištar of Šamuḫa and the Stormgod of Nerik will judge us.” When I wrote thus to Urḫitešub — if someone speaks thus: “Why did you at first install him in kingship, but why do you now declare war on him in writing?” (I will answer:) “If he had in no way opposed me, would they (i.e. the gods) really have made a Great King succumb to a petty king?” Because he has now opposed me, the gods have made him succumb to me by (their) judgement.
§10d (Column 4:1–6) When I declared him these words: “Come!”, he, however, hastened away from the city of Maraššantiya and went to the Upper Country, and Šippaziti, son of Armatarḫunta, was with him. He summoned him to the troops of the Upper Country. Since Šippaziti, however, was evil towards me, he did not … towards me.
Downfall of Urḫitešub
§11 (4:7–40) Because Ištar, My Lady, had already early (fore)told kingship for me, Ištar, My Lady, appeared at that moment to my wife in a dream (saying): “I will march ahead of your husband and all of Ḫattuša will turn to (the side) of your husband. Since I elevated him, I never ever exposed him to an evil trial (or) an evil deity. Now, too, I will lift him and install him in priesthood for the Sungoddess of Arinna, and you must worship me as Ištar parašši!” Ištar, My Lady, backed me, and as she promised me, it happened too. Ištar, My Lady, provided for me there as well in abundance. To the generals whom Urḫitešub had dismissed to some place, Ištar appeared in a dream, while she strengthened them, the exhausted ones54 (saying): “All Ḫatti Lands I have turned over to Ḫattušili.” There, too, I experienced the divine providence of Ištar in abundance. When she had left Urḫitešub no other way whatsoever, she locked him up in Šamuḫa like a pig in a sty. The Kaškaeans, meanwhile, who had been hostile to me, backed me and all Ḫattuša backed me. Out of regard for the love of my brother I did not do anything (evil). I went back down to Urḫitešub and brought him down like a prisoner. I gave him fortified cities in the country of Nuḫašše and there he lived. When he plotted another plot against me, and wanted to ride to Babylon — when I heard the matter, I seized him and sent him alongside the sea. They made Šippaziti cross the border as well, while I took away his property and gave it to Ištar, My Lady. That to Ištar, My Lady, I gave, while Ištar, My Lady, promoted me step by step.
Ḫattušili’s career in retrospect; Kurunta King in Tarḫuntašša; transfer of properties to Ištar;
Tutḫaliya priest of Ištar
§12a (4:41–48) I was a prince and became Chief of the Royal Bodyguard. As Chief of the Royal Bodyguard I became King of Ḫakpiš. As King of Ḫakpiš I then became Great King. Finally, Ištar, My Lady, had put (my) enviers, enemies (and) my opponents in court at my mercy. g Some died by the sword, others died on (their appointed) day: all these I finished off. Ištar, My Lady, had given me kingship over Ḫatti Land.
§12b (4:48–80) I had become Great King: She took me as a prince and let me (rise) to kingship. The kings (who were) my elders (and) who had been on good terms with me, they remained on just those good terms with me, and they began to send envoys to me. They began to send gifts to me, and the gifts they ke[ep] sending me, they never sent to any (of my) fathers and grandfathers.60 The king supposed to respect me, respected me, and the (countries) that had been my enemies, I conquered them. For the Ḫatti Lands I [a]nnexed territory upon territory. (Those) who had been enemies in the days of my fathers (and) grandfat[her]s concluded peace with me. Because the goddess, My Lady, had thus shown me (her) recognition, I did not do anything (evil) out of regard for the love for my brother. I took up my [nephew] Kurunta and installed him into kingship there on the spot which my brother Muwatalli had built into the city of Tarḫuntašša. How often had Ištar, the Lady, taken me! She had installed me on ‘the high place,’ into kingship over Ḫatti Land! I, then, gave Ištar, My Lady, the property of Armatarḫunta: I withdrew it and handed it over. What had been (there) formerly, that I handed over to her, and what I had had, that too I handed over. I withdrew it (all) and handed it over to the goddess.i The property of Armatarḫunta which I gave to her and whatever settlements were Armatarḫunta’s, behind every single cult monument they will erect her (statue) and they will pour a vessel. (For) Ištar (is) my goddess and they will worship her as Ištar the High. The mausoleum which I made myself, I handed it over to the goddess, (and) I handed over to you in subservience my son Tutḫaliya as well. Let Tutḫaliya, my son, administer the house of Ištar! I (am) the servant of the goddess, let him be servant of the goddess as well! The property which I gave the goddess, let everyone strive and strain (?) for the goddess.
Vindication clause
§13 (4:81–85) Whoever will take away in future the offspring of Ḫattušili (and) Puduḫepa from the service of Ištar (or) desires (so much as) a blade of straw from the storehouse (or) a chip of wood from the threshing floor of Ištar of Šamuḫa, let him be Ištar of Šamuḫa’s court opponent! Let no one take them for levy (and) corvée!
Curse
§14 (4:86–89) Whoever in future stands up against the son, grandson (or) offspring of Ḫattušili (and) Puduḫepa, may he among the gods be fearful of Ištar of Šamuḫa!
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 81. Translation: TUAT 1/5:481–492. Discussion: Archi 1971; Cancik 1976; Götze 1925; 1940; Hoffner 1968c; 1975b; van den Hout 1995; Houwink ten Cate 1992; Neumann 1985; Nowicki 1985; Otten 1981a; 1988; von Schuler 1982; Sturtevant and Bechtel 1935; Tadmor 1983; Ünal 1974; Wegner 1989; Wolf 1967.
4. ORACLES
EXCERPT FROM AN ORACLE REPORT (1.78)
Gary Beckman
Since the Hittites believed that divine displeasure was the ultimate source of most evils, they developed a science of divination in order to communicate with their gods, ascertain the reasons for their anger, and bargain about required restitution. The Hittite diviners carefully researched the problems referred to them, making sure both to determine the exact aspect of a situation which had caused a deity’s anger and to assure that no additional factors lay behind his or her rancor. Although the responses given by the gods to the questions put to them are characterized as “favorable” or “unfavorable,” and indeed were probably originally held to portend in themselves good or ill fortune, they have become arbitrary signs in the later binary system documented in texts available to us. That is, in each particular instance the practitioner stipulates whether a “favorable” or an “unfavorable” response will constitute a “yes” answer to the query posed. For essential bibliography concerning the Hittite practice of divination see REFERENCES below.
The inquiry documented in the text excerpted here was occasioned by the sickness of the Great King. Since the members of the royal family are referred to only by their titles, and most of the other individuals mentioned are not found elsewhere, the precise period to which this text should be assigned is uncertain. However, various linguistic and historical considerations suggest that it was composed early in the reign of Tudḫaliya IV (second half of the thirteenth century BCE).
The technical details of the extispicies and bird oracles have been omitted in this translation.
(obv. 1–3) In regard to the fact that His Majesty (Tudḫaliya IV?) became ill, […] have not you, [O deity] of (the town of) Arušna, somehow been provoked [in connection with the illness of His Majesty? If you, O deity, are angry about this, let the first extispicy be favorable and the latter] unfavorable. First extispicy: favorable … unfavorable. Latter [extispicy: …] Unfavorable.
(obv. 4–5) In regard to the fact that in connection with the illness you, O deity of Arušna, were ascertained to be angry — are you, O god, angry in some way in your temple? (If so), let the extispicy be unfavorable … Unfavorable.
(obv. 6) If you, O god, are angry only (about something) in your temple, but are not in any way angry with His Majesty, let the extispicy be favorable … Unfavorable.
(obv. 7–10) In regard to the fact that you, O deity of Arušna, were ascertained to be angry with His Majesty, is this because the queen (Puduḫepa?) cursed Ammattalla before the deity of Arušna? Because Ammattalla began to concern herself with the deity, yet did not go back and forth (in service to the deity)? Because the son of Ammattalla has dressed himself in garments entrusted to his mother and was summoned to the palace? If you, O god, are angry about this, let the extispicy be unfavorable … Unfavorable.
(obv. 11) If you, O god, are angry only about this, let the duck oracle be favorable. Unfavorable.
(obv. 12–27) In regard to the fact that it was once more unfavorable, is this because Mala spoke as follows: “The queen made for herself a crown of gold in the mausoleum of the Tutelary Deity. In a dream the deity of Arušna demanded it from the queen, but the queen did not give it. She set it aside in the storehouse of the treasurer, and in its place the queen made two other crowns of silver for the deity of Arušna. And as long as she had not sent it (the crown of gold) to the deity of Arušna, the matter brought trouble for the queen, and she was expelled from the palace. Then it happened that the queen wrote back to His Majesty from (the town of) Utruli: ‘The crown of gold which the deity of Arušna demanded from me in a dream is now lying in the storehouse of the treasurer. The inlay pieces (?) and the precious stones which were left over (from its manufacture) are now lying in the container for adupli-garments. Send them off to the deity!’ ” They found that crown of gold, and with it lay a falcon of gold, a grape cluster (made up of) precious stones, eight rosettes, ten knobs (?), and eyebrow(s) and eyelid(s) of precious stones. Then they took them to the mausoleum of the Tutelary Deity, to the statue of the queen. But they did not find the inlay pieces (?) which (supposedly) lay in the container for adupli-garments. (Of) the two crowns of silver (!) which the queen made for the deity (in fulfillment) of (her) vow, they found (only) one crown of silver (!), and they sent it off to the deity. But they did not find the (other) crown of silver (!). Is it because they spoke as follows: “Whatever is found among the furnishings of the deity will certainly be given to the deity. It will not be exchanged (for something inferior).” Is it because we did not know about the single falcon of gold, the grape cluster (made up of) precious stones, the eight rosettes, the knobs (?), the eyebrow(s) and the eyelid(s), and because they were taken to the mausoleum of the Tutelary Deity, to the statue of the queen? (And because) they did not find the inlay pieces? If you, O god, are angry about this, let the extispicy be unfavorable … Unfavorable.
(obv. 28) If you, O god, are angry only about this, but not in regard to anything else, let the extispicy be favorable … Unfavorable.
(obv. 29–30) In regard to the fact that it was once more unfavorable, (is this) because the great princess (daughter of the king of Babylon and wife of Tudḫaliya IV?) secretly [brought] Ammattalla up into the palace? If you, O god, are angry about this, let the extispicy be unfavorable … Unfavorable.
(obv. 31–32) We have not yet investigated what Ammattalla said — whether the testimony is true, or how (it is to be taken). It has not been included in an oracular inquiry. Now if the omen has occurred because of this, let the extispicy be unfavorable … Unfavorable.
(obv. 33) If only this (is the cause of the divine anger), and (there is) nothing else in addition, let the first duck oracle be favorable and the latter unfavorable. The first duck oracle was unfavorable and the latter favorable.
(obv. 34–40) In regard to the fact that it was once more unfavorable, (is this) because the affair of Naru was postponed? Because Naru was brought and spoke of (the affair of the woman) Pattiya? Pattiya was expelled from the palace and will be given to the deity. Concerning the affair of Palla she said: “The queen said: ‘May you, O deity, take cognizance of that which I gave to Palla, so that you will keep after Palla (about it).’ ” We interrogated the associates of Palla, and they said: “We do not know about that affair.” And that affair will (therefore) be postponed, (but) we will make inquiries about it. If there is not anything in addition (as the cause of the divine anger), let the first extispicy be favorable and the latter unfavorable. The first extispicy: … Unfavorable. The latter extispicy: … Favorable.
(obv. 41–48) In regard to the fact that an omen of the deity of Arušna occurred once more, (is this) because the queen saw a dream? In the dream someone repeats: “Why will you give the furnishings which are in the mausoleum of the Tutelary Deity to the deity of Arušna? Leave something!” If this omen has occurred because of this, let the extispicy be unfavorable. The extispicy was favorable.… In regard to the fact that it was once more unfavorable, (is this) because Naru […] said: “Because Pattiya has stayed too long up in the palace, two women shall be included as reparation when she is given to the deity. They shall be clothed in palace garments. And although the queen might die because of that deity, they (still) have not put away (that is, satisfied?) the deity on her account.” Because of [that, the reparation was determined upon]. Some [furnishings] will be left behind in the mausoleum of the Tutelary Deity. Those of the royal household will be kept separate. If [… In regard to the fact that] Pattiya has not (yet) been given [to the deity] of Arušna — if you, O deity, have given the omen in respect to this, ditto. Let it be kept separate from the [affair of the palace]. Let the extispicy be favorable …
(obv. 49–50) In regard to the fact that it was once more unfavorable, (is it) because an offense remains in the mausoleum of the Tutelary Deity? We will make an oracular inquiry about it. Whatever is ascertained will be given to the deity. If you, O deity, have likewise approved, let the extispicy be favorable … Favorable.
(obv. 51–52) In regard to the fact that that offense in the mausoleum of the Tutelary Deity was determined to remain, should they proceed to give it (that is, a present) with precious stones to the deity? Ditto (= If you, O deity, have approved), let the duck oracle be favorable. Unfavorable.
(obv. 53) Should they give it with gold to the deity? Ditto. Let the duck oracle be favorable. Unfavorable.
(obv. 54) Should they give it with gold and precious stones to the deity? Ditto. Let the duck oracle be favorable. Unfavorable.
(obv. 55) Have you, O deity, sought something with a sumptuous garment for yourself? (If so), let the duck oracle be favorable. Favorable.
(obv. 56) Should they proceed to give (a gift) with gold, precious stones, and a sumptuous garment to the deity? Ditto. Let the duck oracle be favorable. Unfavorable.
(obv. 57) Should they proceed to give (a gift) with a sumptuous garment and a person to the deity? Ditto. Let the duck oracle be favorable. Unfavorable.
(obv. 58) In regard to the fact that a (gift) with a sumptuous garment was ascertained — should they proceed to give one garment to the deity? Ditto. Let the duck oracle be favorable. Unfavorable.
(obv. 59) Should they give one garment and one cowl? Ditto. Let the duck oracle be favorable. Unfavorable.
(obv. 60) Should they give one garment, one cowl, and a woman’s kinanta-garment? Ditto. Let the duck oracle be favorable. Favorable.
Thus after 60 lines of text, a preliminary conclusion has been reached about some causes of the deity’s anger and the necessary compensatory gifts. The report continues, however, for a further 94 lines in which other matters displeasing to the deity and the means by which they might be put right are discussed.
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 566; KUB 22.70 obv. 1–60. Bibliography: Archi 1974; 1975; 1982; Hoffner 1987; Kammenhuber 1976; Laroche 1952; 1958; 1970; Ünal 1978; Ünal and Kammenhuber 1975; Schuol 1994:73–124.
ASSURING THE SAFETY OF THE KING DURING THE WINTER (1.79)
(KUB 5.4 + KUB 18.53 and KUB 5.3 + KUB 18.52)
Richard H. Beal
The purpose of the texts comprising this selection is to assure the safety of the king while he is cooped up through the cold central Anatolian winter, by discovering ahead of time any problems that the gods foresee arising, and by ascertaining the correct method of correcting these. The selection is made up of two texts containing parallel sets of questions. The translation follows the better preserved tablet until the second tablet goes off on a tangent. Each section of the tablet not being translated at any one time can be followed in the footnotes.The texts date from the later part of the Hittite Empire period.
The texts, like other Hittite oracle texts, asks the gods a series of questions each phrased so that the gods can give a yes or no answer. If the validity of a good or optimistic statement is being ascertained, the deity is asked to give a “favorable” result. Conversely, if the validity of a bad or pessimistic statement is being ascertained, the deity is asked to give an “unfavorable” answer. A favorable answer to a request for a favorable response or an unfavorable answer to a request for an unfavorable confirms the statement. That is the answer is “yes.” An unfavorable answer to a favorable request or vice versa indicates that the question is not true, that is, the answer is “no.”
The primary method chosen by the questioner in these texts for the deity to indicate the answer is the “symbol” oracles.3 In this type of oracle the questions are presented to the deity by the female diviner/exorcist. In this method, native to Anatolia, some symbolically named thing “takes” other symbolically named things and “gives” them to another symbolically named thing. There is no indication how this was performed in practice, but Archi’s5 idea of an animal running over or past certain marked spots on a large gameboard will fit the known evidence. This is particularly true since a rarer related type of oracle, the snake oracle, is clearly performed by having a symbolically named watersnake swim around past symbolically named places in a basin.
The questioner in the second text also employs on occasion another type of oracle known as “flesh,” “exta” or in earlier periods “liver” oracles. These questions are presented and interpreted by the male diviner/exorcist. In this method, borrowed from the Mesopotamians via the Hurrians, he asks the god to reply via telltale marks to be found in the exta of sheep.8
(KUB 5.4 + KUB 18.53 i 1 – ii 42)
(i 1–10) [Thi]s y[ear His Majesty proposes to wi]nter [in Ḫattuša.] [He will celebrate the customa]ry [festivals,] the festival of the ye[ar], the thunder festival in Ḫattuša. [The birds of the neighborho]od (?) will congregate in Ḫattuša for him. [If] we have nothing to fear for the head of His Majesty up in Ḫattuša and you [O gods] have approved wintering in Ḫattuša for His Majesty, le[t the symbol oracle be favorab]le. ‘The deity’ took for himself ‘the whole soul’ and ‘blood’ and gave them to ‘the king.’ On the second ‘day’: ‘The gods’ arose and took ‘well–being,’ and gave it to ‘the assembly.’ One the third ‘day’: ‘The dais’ arose and took ‘the ye[ar?].’ Into ‘good.’ Favorable.
(11–15) We placed symbols of confirmation as a countercheck. Let the symbol oracle be favorable. ‘Ḫannaḫanna’ arose and took ‘the kindlinesses of the gods.’ Into ‘long life.’ On the second ‘day,’ ‘the deity’ took for himself ‘hidden (?) anger.’13 Into ‘emptiness.’ On the third ‘day’: ‘The assembly’ to[ok] for itself ‘rightness’ and ‘good of the house’ and gave them to ‘Tarḫunt.’ Favorable.
(16–25) This year His Majesty proposes to winter in Ḫattuša. He will celebrate the customary festivals, the festival of the year, the thunder festival in Ḫattuša. [The bird]s of the neighborhood (?) will congregate in Ḫattuša for him. If high fever will not find His Majesty while he is up in Ḫattuša, let the symbol oracle be favorable. ‘The Sungod of Heaven’ arose and took ‘thick–bread’ and gave it to ‘the assembly.’ On the second ‘day’: ‘The anger of the gods’ was taken. To ‘the lesser sickness.’ On the third ‘day’: ‘Good’ took ‘the kindlinesses of the Fates.’17 ‘To the Fates’ whole soul.’ Fourth track: ‘The gods’ arose and took ‘the le[sser sickness (?)]’ and gave it to ‘the assembly.’ Favorable.
(26–32) This year His Majesty proposes to winter in Ḫattuša. He will celebrate the customary festivals, the festival of the year, the thunder festival in Ḫattuša. The birds of the neighborhood (?) will congregate in Ḫattuša for him. If we have nothing to fear from revolt while His Majesty is up in Ḫattuša, let the symbol oracle be favorable. ‘The king’ took for himself ‘rightness’ and ‘the word.’ ‘The revolt which they make’ he placed in ‘misbehavior’ for them. Unfavorable.
(33–34) Since the oracle was unfavorable, will someone inside revolt? Let the symbol–oracle be unfavorable. ‘Evil’ was taken and given to ‘the assembly.’ Unfavorable.
(35–36) Will someone outside revolt? Let the symbol–oracle be unfavorable. ‘The deity’ took for himself ‘the whole soul’ and ‘fire.’ They are placed to the right of the ‘king.’ Unfavorable.
(a blank paragraph follows)
(37–43) This year His Majesty proposes to winter in Ḫattuša. He will celebrate the customary festivals, the festival of the year, the thunder festival in Ḫattuša. The birds of the neighborhood (?) will congregate [in Ḫat]tuša [for him.] If we have nothing to fear from birds while [His Majesty] is up in Ḫattuša, let the symbol oracle be favorable.
‘Tarḫunt’ arose and took […], ‘vigor,’ and ‘the great misdeed’ and [gave] them [to … Favorable.]
(44–50) This year His Majesty proposes to w[inter] in Ḫattuša. He will celebrate the customary festivals, the festival of the year, the th[under] festival in Ḫattuša. The birds of the neighborho[od (?)] will congregate in Ḫattuša [for him]. If we have nothing to fear [from impurity while] His Majesty is up in Ḫattuša, let the symbol oracle be favorable.[…] took […] and ‘the hand.’ To ‘the gods.’ Unfavorable.
(51–ii 1) They will go and give sworn instructions to the kitchen personnel […] and they will have them swear. If this will make the e[vil] disappear,20 let the symbol oracle be favorable.‘The dais’ arose and took ‘the king’s […].’ To ‘the gods.’ On the second ‘day’: ‘Ḫannaḫanna’ arose and took ‘the year’ and ‘the good of the land.’ To ‘the great sickness.’ On the third ‘day’: ‘The assembly’ took for itself ‘hidden (?) misdeed.’ Into ‘emptiness.’ Favorable.
(ii 2–7) This year [His Majesty] proposes to winter in Ḫattuša. He will celebrate the customary festivals, the festival of the year, the thunder festival in Ḫattuša. The birds of the neighborhood (?) will co[ngregate] in Ḫattuša for him. If we have nothing to fear from a downpour while His Majesty is up in Ḫattuša, let the symbol oracle be favorable. ‘Evil’ was taken. To ‘the gods.’ Unfavorable.
(8–13) This year His Majesty proposes to winter in Ḫattuša. He will celebrate the customary festivals, the festival of the year, the thunder festival in Ḫattuša. The birds of the neighborhood (?) will congregate in Ḫattuša for him. If we have nothing to fear from fire while His Majesty is up in Ḫattuša, let the symbol oracle be favorable. ‘The assembly’ took ‘sinisterness’ and ‘fire.’ Unfavorable.
(14–19) They will go and give sworn instructions concerning fire. If this will make the evil disappear, let the symbol oracle be favorable. ‘The gods’ arose and took ‘life’ and gave it to ‘the assembly.’ On the second ‘day’: The ‘angers of the gods’ were taken. To ‘the lesser sickness.’ On the third ‘day’: ‘Ḫannaḫanna’ arose and took ‘life’ and ‘well–[being].’ To ‘the big sickness.’ Favorable.
(20–26) This year His Majesty proposes to winter in Ḫattuša. He will celebrate the customary festivals, the festival of the year, the thunder festival in Ḫattuša. The birds of the neighborhood (?) will congregate in Ḫattuša for him. If we have nothing to fear from accident while His Majesty is up in Ḫattuša, let the symbol oracle be favorable. ‘The assembly’ took for itself ‘rightness.’ Into ‘evil.’ Unfavorable.
(27–29) They will go and give sworn instructions26 concerning accidents. If this will make the evil disappear, let the symbol oracle be favorable.
(No answer is recorded in the blank lines provided.)
(30–36b) This year His Majesty proposes to wi[nter] in Ḫattuša. He will celebrate the customary festivals, the festival of the year, the thunder festival in Ḫattuša. The birds of the neighborhood (?) will congregate in Ḫattuša for him. If we have nothing to fear from road accident while His Majesty is up in Ḫattuša, let the symbol oracle be favorable. ‘The king’ took for himself ‘hidden (?) misdeed.’ […] Unfavorable.
(37–42) [They will go and give sworn instructions] to the chariot–drivers concerning road accidents. [If] this will [make] the evil [disappear, let the symbol oracle be favorable …] took […] ‘life.’ To ‘the gods.’ [… Int]o ‘emptiness.’ [… were tak]en. To the ‘lesser sickness.’ […].
(Another text as far as preserved gives the same series of questions. In this second text, after discovering that road accidents will be a problem, it asks:)
(KUB 5.3 + KUB 18.54 i 23–iii)
(i 23–25) Since a road accident was ascertained for His Majesty, is this road accident due to the anger of some deity? Let the flesh oracle be unfavorable. The nipašuri, šintaḫi, and keldi. The thing (?) took them inside itself.36 The zizaḫi, is placed. Twelve turns of the intestines. Favorable.
(26–29) The question by the female diviner/exorcist is the same. Let the symbol (oracle) be unfavorable. ‘The deity’ took for himself ‘the whole soul,’ ‘the good of the house’ and ‘the good of the land.’ Behind the ‘dais.’ On the second ‘day’: ‘The angers of the gods’ were taken from ‘long life.’ To ‘the lesser sickness.’ On the third ‘day’: ‘The Sungod of Heaven’ arose and took ‘an evocation ritual’ ‘fire’ and ‘the great misdeed.’ Into ‘emptiness.’ F[avorable].
(30–31) Will the road accident happen to His Majesty due to the negligence of a person? Let the flesh oracle be unfavorable. The gallbladder was ḫilipšiman. Unfavorable.
(32–33) The question by the female diviner/exorcist is the same. Let the symbol (oracle) be unfavorable. ‘The gods’ arose and took ‘an evocation ritual’ and gave it to ‘the assembly.’ Unfavorable.
(34–37b) They will go and give sworn instructions to the c[hariot–drivers] concerning road accidents. If this will make the evil disappear, let the f[irst fle]sh oracle be favorable and the latter unfavorable. The first flesh: nipašuri–s […] on the right and left. A ‘bolt’ is above them. The šintaḫi, tanani (and) keldi. The enti of the left. […] Favorable. The latter flesh: The SAG.ME. Unfavorable.
(38–41) The question by the female diviner/exorcist is the same. Let the symbol (oracle) be favorable. ‘Tarḫunt’ [arose and took …] and gave them to ‘the king.’ On the second ‘day’: ‘The Sungod of Heaven’ arose and took ‘the king’s […’]. Behind ‘the dais.’ ‘Ḫannaḫanna’ arose (and) [took] ‘life’ […] To ‘the lesser sickness.’ Favorable.
(42–49) This year His Majesty proposes to winter in Ḫattuša. If, while His Majesty is up in Ḫattuša there will not be an epidemic among the standing army troops (i.e., the šarikuwa and UKU.UŠ) — we are not concerned here if the day of death arrives this year for 10 or 20 soldiers —– if there will not be an epidemic up in Ḫattuša and if a general sudden death does not make us flee down from Ḫattuša, let the symbol oracle be favorable. ‘The deity’ [took] ‘the whole soul’ and gave it to ‘the assembly.’ Unfavorable.
(50–53) The question by the male diviner/exorcist is the same. Let the first flesh oracle be favorable and let the second be unfavorable. The first flesh oracle: The nipašuri, šintaḫi, keldi and the path. The thing (?) took them inside itself. Ten turns of the intestines. Favorable. The second flesh oracle: It is favorable, but behind it is šuri. Unfavorable.
(54–57) Concerning an epidemic that was ascertained to occur up in Ḫattuša among the standing army troops, is some deity going to cause the plague up in Ḫattuša? Let the symbol oracle be unfavorable. ‘The gods’ arose and took ‘good.’ They (!) placed it in ‘anger’ for ‘the deity.’ [Unfavorable.]
(58–63) [I]f the plague up in Ḫattuša within the year […], let [the symbol oracle be u]nfavorable. ‘The gods’ arose and to[ok] ‘life’ and ‘well–being.’ […] to ‘the whole soul’ for ‘the deity.’ [On the second ‘day’: …] took ‘evil of […]’ into ‘emp[tiness.’ On the third ‘day’: ‘The Sungod] of Heaven’ arose and took ‘a long life’ and pl]aced [it] […]. Favorable.
(ii 1–4) Since the anger of a god was ascertained to be the cause of the plague, will some new deity be causing the plague up in Ḫattuša? Let the symbol oracle be unfavorable. ‘The gods’ arose and took ‘life’ and ‘the great misdeed.’ They gave them to ‘the assembly.’ Unfavorable.
(5–8) If only a new deity and not also some other deity will be causing the plague up in Ḫattuša, let the symbol oracle be favorable. ‘Ḫannaḫanna’ arose and took ‘the kindlinesses of the gods’ and gave them to ‘the deity.’ Unfavorable.
(9–12) Will it be some Hittite god also causing the plague up in Ḫattuša? Let the symbol oracle be unfavorable. ‘The deity’ took for himself ‘the whole soul’ and placed it in ‘anger.’ Unfavorable.
(13–18) If it will be only a new deity and the Hittite gods who will be causing the plague up in Ḫattuša, and further ditto (= not also some other deity causing it), let the symbol oracle be favorable. ‘The deity’ took ‘the whole soul.’ Into ‘good.’ On the second ‘day’: ‘Evil’ was taken. Into ‘emptiness.’ On the third ‘day’: ‘The Sungod of Heaven’ arose and took the ‘angers of the gods.’ Into ‘the lesser sickness.’ Favorable.
(19–22) Is the new deity who was determined to be causing the plague a new god of kingship? Let the symbol oracle be unfavorable. ‘The deity’ took for himself ‘the whole soul.’ Into ‘good.’ Unfavorable.
(23–26) If it will be only a new deity of kingship who will be causing the plague in Ḫattuša and not some further deity, let the symbol oracle be favorable. ‘Ḫannaḫanna’ arose and took ‘good’ and placed it ‘in anger’ for ‘the deity.’ Unfavorable.
(27–29) Is it a new deity (resident) in Ḫattuša who will be causing the plague in Ḫattuša? Let the symbol oracle be unfavorable. ‘The assembly’ took for itself ‘sinisterness.’ To the ‘great sickness.’ Unfavorable.
(30–34) Is the new deity of kingship who was ascertained a new deity of kingship wh[o lives] in a temple? Is that one somehow angry? Let the sym[bol oracle be unfavorable.] ‘Ḫannaḫanna’ arose and took ‘good’ and placed it ‘in anger’ for ‘the deity.’ Unfavorable.
(35–39) If it is the new deity of kingship who lives in a temple […] and another new deity is in no way angry, let the [symbol oracle be fav]orable. ‘The deity’ took for himself ‘the whole soul’ (and) ‘good.’ To ‘the lesser sickness.’ Unfavorable.
(40–44) Is it a new deity of kingship who […] among the gods […] and that one also is somehow angry? Let the symbol oracle be unfavorable. ‘The assembly’ took for itself ‘sinisterness’ and ‘the great sickness.’ To the ‘whole soul’ for ‘the deity.’ Unfavorable.
(45–49b) Since concerning the plague, you, O new [de]ity of kingship, have been determined to be in anger, is it because you have not yet been put on the road (i.e., satisfied)? Let the symbol oracle be favorable. ‘The angers of the gods’ were taken from ‘long life.’ To ‘Ḫannaḫanna.’ Unfavorable.
(50–56) (The next section is too broken to translate, but seems to be asking if this is the only problem.) (Column iii preserves little more than traces. Presumably it contained questions on how to soothe the divine anger.)
(The top two–thirds of column iv are uninscribed. We return to the KUB 5.4 for its next question. KUB 5.3 resumes with a question parallel to the second question of KUB 5.4.)
(KUB 5.4 + KUB 18.53 iii)
(iii 1–2) His Majesty proposes to winter beside the Temple of Tarḫunt of Aleppo. Let the symbol oracle be favorable. (No answer is recorded in the space provided.)
(3–12) This year His Majesty proposes to winter in Kātapa. He will celebrate the customary festivals,43 the festival of the year, the thunder festival in Kātapa. The birds of the neighborhood (?) will congregate in Kātapa for him. If we have nothing to fear for the head of His Majesty up in Kātapa and if you O gods approved wintering in Kātapa for His Majesty, let the symbol oracle be favorable. ‘The king’ took for himself ‘rightness’ and ‘the city.’ To ‘the whole soul’ for ‘the deity.’ On the second ‘day.’ ‘The dais’ arose and took ‘the year’ and gave it to ‘Ḫannaḫanna.’ On the third ‘day’: ‘Good’ took ‘the kindlinesses of the gods.’ To ‘long life.’ Favorable.
(uninscribed paragraph)
(13–14) His Majesty proposes to winter47 in Ānkuwa. Let the symbol oracle be favorable. ‘The gods’ arose and took ‘the city.’ To ‘the Sungod of Heaven.’ Unfavorable.49 (KUB 5.4 + KUB 18.53 ends here; KUB 5.3 + KUB 18.52 iv continues:)
(iv 13–15) This year His Majesty proposes to winter in Zitḫara. Ditto. Let the symbol oracle be favorable. ‘Tarḫunt’ arose and took ‘protection’ and ‘the great misdeed.’ They are given to ‘the assembly.’ Unfavorable. (End of text).
REFERENCES
Archi 1974; 1975; 1982; Beal 1994; Berman 1982; Goetze 1962; Gurney 1981; Hoffner 1993; van den Hout 1991; Kammenhuber 1976; Laroche 1952; 1958; 1970; Lebrun 1994; Schuol 1994:73–124; 247–304; Ünal 1973; 1974; 1978; Ünal and Kammenhuber 1975.
C. INDIVIDUAL FOCUS
1. PROVERBS
HITTITE PROVERBS (1.80)
Gary Beckman
The sayings and generalizing anecdotes by which the Hittites expressed the received wisdom of their civilization were not collected for use in scribal instruction as was the practice in earlier Mesopotamia, but are rather to be found scattered throughout texts of various types. The following is a selection of proverbs and proverbial allusions:
1. [In a prayer, a queen addresses the chief goddess of Ḫatti, asking her to cure her husband’s illness, in return for service which she herself has rendered to the deity’s child:] Among humans one often speaks the proverb as follows: “A god is well-disposed to a midwife.” I, Puduḫepa, am a midwife, (and since) I have devoted myself to your son (the Storm-god of Nerik), be well-disposed to me, O Sun-goddess of Arinna, my lady! Give to me [what I ask of you]; grant life to [Ḫattušili (III)], your servant.
2. [It is probably the same queen who writes in irritation to a young man who had married into the royal family:] Why does one speak thus: “The son-in-law whose wife has died remains in every sense a son-in-law?” You were my son-in-law, but you do not recognize my relationship (?).
3. [A high Hittite authority in Syria addresses King Ammurapi of Ugarit concerning his impending divorce from the daughter of the Hittite Great King:] A proverb of the Hittites: “A man was held in prison for five years. When they said to him, ‘You will be released in the morning,’ he was annoyed.” Now you have acted in this manner. Did the daughter of His Majesty perhaps remove herself from her estate? (Or) [did] you somehow [do (it)? You removed her!]
4. [A Hittite law reads:] If someone elopes with a woman, and a rescuer goes after them — if two or three men die, there is no legal compensation. “You have become a wolf!”
5. The sin of the father devolves upon his son.
6. Since humanity is depraved, rumors constantly circulate.
7. The will of the gods is severe! It does not hasten to seize, but when it does seize, it does not let go again!
8. (When) a bird takes refuge in its nest, the nest preserves its life.
9. The tongue is a bridge.
10. This one disappears, but that one’s still here!
11. [Something] is on hand, (but) something (else) is not on hand.
REFERENCES
Texts: 1. KUB 21.27 ii 15–21; 2. KUB 23.85:7–9; 3. RS 20.216:5–19; 4. KBo 6.2 + ii 10–12; 5. KUB 14.8 rev. 13; 6. KBo 5.13 iv 8–9; 7. KUB 13.4 ii 22–24; 8. KUB 14.8 rev. 22; 9. KBo 11 iii 17; 10. KUB 13.35 iv 45–46; 11. KUB 40.88 iii 9; Bibliography: Beckman 1986; Nougayrol 1960.
2. OTHER WISDOM LITERATURE
FRAGMENT OF A WISDOM TEXT (?) (1.81)
Gary Beckman
The type of composition to which this small piece of a tablet belongs is uncertain.
[If a city is in ruins (?)], then [the builders] will build [it a second time]. If a rhyton [is cracked (?), then] the artisans [will cast] it a second time, [and] they will renew it a second time.
[If someone damages] a plated horse chariot, then its owner [will repair] it [a second time].
[If] a flood carries off an orchard (!), [then] its [owner will establish] the orchard a second time.
[You] are not a town, nor are you [the wall] of a structure, [so that] the builders will build you a second time.
You are not a rhyton, so that the artisans will cast you a second time. You are not a plated [horse chariot, so that] they will repair you a second time.
You are not an orchard, so that [they will establish] you a second time.
REFERENCES
Text: KUB 57.30: 1´-15´; Bibliography: van den Hout 1990:425–26.
EXCERPT FROM THE HURRO-HITTITE BILINGUAL WISDOM TEXT (1.82)
Gary Beckman
The recent discovery at Bogazköy/Ḫattuša of a multi-tablet composition in Hurrian with Hittite translation is very important for the study of the former language, which is still poorly understood. This text is also of significance because the genre of wisdom literature was previously only scantily represented at the Hittite capital. This translation is based primarily on the Hittite text.
(ii 1–15) A mountain expelled a deer from its expanse (lit., ‘body’), and the deer went to another mountain. He became fat and he sought a confrontation. He began to curse the mountain: “If only fire would burn up the mountain on which I graze! If only the Storm-god would smite it (with lightning) and fire burn it up!” When the mountain heard, it became sick at heart, and in response the mountain cursed the deer: “The deer whom I fattened up now curses me in return. Let the hunters bring down the deer! Let the fowlers capture him! Let the hunters take his meat, and the fowlers take his skin!”
(ii 17–21) It is not a deer, but a human. A certain man who fled from his own town arrived in another land. When he sought confrontation, he began to undertake evil in return for the town (of his refuge), but the gods of the town have cursed him.
(ii 23–25) Leave that story. I will tell you another story. Listen to the message. I will speak wisdom to you.
(ii 26–30) There is a deer. He grazes the pastures which lie beside the streams. He always casts (his) [eyes] upon the pastures which are on the other side, but he does not reach the pastures of (the other) side. He does not catch sight of them.
(ii 31–38) It is not a deer, but a human. A certain man whom his lord made a district governor — although he was made governor of one district, he always cast (his) eyes upon a second district. Then the gods taught him a lesson, and he did not arrive at that (first) district, nor did he (even) catch sight of the second district.
(ii 39–41) Leave that story. I will tell you another story. Listen to the message. I will speak wisdom to you.
(ii 42–51) A smith cast a cup in a praiseworthy fashion. He cast and moulded it. He inlaid it with ornaments and engraved it. He put a shine on it with a woolen cloth. But the foolish piece of copper began to curse the one who had cast it: “If only the hand of the one who cast me were broken! If only his right forearm were palsied!” When the smith heard, he became sick at heart.
(ii 52–60) He began to say to himself: “Why has this piece of copper which I cast cursed me in return?” The smith uttered a curse against the cup: “Let the Storm-god smash the cup and rip off its ornaments! Let the cup fall into an irrigation ditch and the ornaments fall into a river!”
(iii 1–5) It is not a cup, but a human. A certain son who was hostile to his father became an adult and he moved to (a better) circle. He no longer looks after his father. The gods of his father have cursed him.
(iii 6–8) Leave that story. I will tell you another story. Listen to the message. I will speak wisdom to you.
(iii 9–12) A dog absconded with a loaf of bread from an oven. He pulled it out of the oven and dipped it in grease. He dipped it in grease, sat down, and set about eating it.
(iii 13–19) It is not a dog, but a human. <A certain man> whom his lord had made a district administrator later increased the tax payments in that town. He was very confrontational and no longer looked after the town. They managed to denounce him before his lord, and he began to disgorge before his lord the taxes which he had swallowed up.
(iii 20–22) Leave that story. I will tell you another story. Listen to the message. I will speak wisdom to you.
(iii 28–32) A rodent (?) dragged a loaf of bread from an oven. He pulled it out of the oven and dipped [it] in grease. He dipped it in grease, sat down, and set about eating it.
[It is not] a rodent (?), but a human. <A certain man> whom his lord had made a provincial governor later increased the tax payments in that [town]. He was very confrontational and no longer [looked] after the town. They managed to denounce him before his lord, and he began to disgorge before his lord the taxes which he had swallowed up.
(iii 34) Leave that story. I will tell you another story. Listen to the message. I will speak wisdom to you.
(iii 41–47) [A builder] built a tower in a praiseworthy fashion. He [sank] the foundation trenches down to the Sun-goddess of the Earth. He made the battlements (?) reach up nearly to heaven. Then the foolish [tower] began to curse the one who had built it: “If only the hand of the one who built me were broken! If only his [right] forearm were palsied!” The builder heard and he [became sick] at heart. [The builder] said to himself: “Why has the wall which I built cursed me?” Then the builder uttered a curse [against the tower]: “Let the Storm-god smash the tower and pull up the foundation blocks! Let its […] fall down into an irrigation ditch and the brickwork fall down into a river!”
(iii 52) It is [not] a tower, but a human. A certain son who was an enemy of his father became an adult, and he attained [an honorable position (?)]. He no longer looks after his father. The gods of his father have cursed him.
REFERENCES
Text: KBo 32.14 ii 1-iii 52; Bibliography: Oettinger 1992; Otten 1984:54–60.
3. INSTRUCTIONS
INSTRUCTIONS TO PRIESTS AND TEMPLE OFFICIALS (1.83)
Gregory McMahon
This text is preserved in at least eight copies, several of which have been reconstructed through multiple joins of tablet fragments. The tablets are to be found in both the Istanbul and Ankara tablet collections. The copies date to the Empire period, but the text itself seems to go back to the pre–New Hittite period, before the reign of Šuppiluliuma I. The main text is KUB 13.4, a large well preserved four column tablet with the tops of columns i and ii broken away. Unless otherwise noted, line numbers given are for that tablet.
§1 (1´–13´) The first paragraph is too broken to translate meaningfully. An estimated twelve lines are missing completely, and lines x+1 through 12´ are only partially preserved. The preserved remnant includes allusions to measures (probably of grain), the palace, and a few prohibitions. Line 13´, although mostly preserved, is not intelligible without the context of previous lines.
§2 (i 14´–33´) Further: Let those who make the daily bread be clean. Let them be washed and trimmed. Let (their) hair (?) and finger[nails] be trimmed.1 Let them be clothed in clean garments I[f] (they are) [not], let them not prepare (them). Let those who normally [propit]iate the spirit and body of the gods prepare them. The baker’s house in which they bake them must be swept and sprinkled down. Further, neither pig nor dog may come through the doors into the place where the bread is broken. (Are) the mind of man and god somehow different? No! In this which (is concerned)? No! The mind (is) one and the same. When the servant stands before his master, he (is) washed. He has clothed (himself) in clean (clothes). He gives him (his master) either to eat or to drink. Since the master eats and drinks, (in) his spirit he (is) relaxed. He is favorably inclined toward him (the servant). When he (is) solicitous (?), his master) does not find fault (with him). Is the mind of the god somehow different? If the servant at some point angers his master, either they kill him, or they injure his nose, eyes, (and) ears. Or he (the master) [will sei]ze him, (and) his wife, his children, his brother, his sister, his in–laws, (and) his family, whether his (master’s) male or female slave. They (may) only call (him) over. They (may) do nothing to him. If ever he dies, he does not die alone. His family (is) also included with him.
§3 (i 34´–38´) If, however, someone angers the mind of a god, does the god seek it (revenge) only from him alone? Does he not seek it from his wife, [his children,] his descendants, his family, his male and female servants, his cattle, his sheep and his grain? He utterly destroys him with everything. Be very afraid of a god’s word for your own sake.
§4 (i 39´–49´) Further: The festival of the month, the festival of the year, the festival of the stag, the festival of autumn, the festival of spring, the festival of thunder, the festival of ḫiyara-, the festival of pudaḫa-, the išuwa- festival, the festival of šatlašša-, the festival of the rhyton, the festivals of the holy priest, the festivals of the old men, the festivals of the šiwanzanni- priestesses, the festival of daḫiya-, the festivals of the upati– men, the festivals of pula–, the festivals of ḫaḫratar, or whatever festival (there is) up in Ḫattuša: If you do not perform them with all the cattle, sheep, bread, beer and wine set up, (or if) you officials of the temple make a deal with those who provide them (the offering materials), you will cause them (the offerings) to fall short of the will of the gods.
§5 (i 50´–59´) Or if you take them (the offerings) when set up, and do not bring them forth for the pleasure of the gods, (but rather) carry them away to your own houses, and your wives, children, and servants eat them up, or a relative or some important (?) guest comes to you and you give them to him: You are taking them from the pleasure of the god. (If) you do not bring them straight in to him, (or if) you present them (divided) into several portions, that matter of dividing will be upon your head. Do not divide them. And he who does divide them shall die. Let there be no turning back for him.
§6 (i 60´–66´, KUB 13.5+ ii 6–16) Keep all of the bread, beer, (and) wine up in the temple.3 Let no one omit the thick bread or thin bread of the god. e And let no one pour out beer (or) wine off the top of the cup. Render it all to the god. Then speak (this) word for yourselves before the god: “Whoever took from your divine bread (or) libation vessel, may the god my lord pursue him. May he seize his house from bottom to top.” If [you are able] to eat (and) drink [everyth]ing on that day, eat and drink it. If, however, you are unable to do so, eat and drink [it within] three days. The piyantalla– bread, however, [you may not give] to your wives, children, (or) female or male servants.6 The beer and wine is not to [cross] the threshold of the gods. If a guest comes to anyone, if he (the host) in order to go up to the temple normally crosses the threshold of the god [or the king, that] one (the host) may [take] him up. He may eat and drink. If, however, he (is) a [forei]gner, (if) he (is) not a native of Ḫattuša (and) he approaches the gods, [he will die]. And it (is) a capital offence for whoever takes him (in).
§7 (KUB 13.5 ii 17–33) [If] some [ox or] sheep (is) driven in for the gods to eat, but you take away either the fattened ox or fattened sheep; and you substitute a thin one which you have slaughtered; (and) either you eat up that ox, or you put it into a pen, or you put it under a yoke; or you put the sheep into the fold, or you kill it for yourselves, (or) [you do] as you wish, or [you give] it in exchange to another man and you accept a payment: You are withholding [a morsel] from the mouth of the god. (If) [you give] it [for your own desire], or you give it to another and you think thus: “Because he (is) a god, he will say nothing. He will do nothing to us:” Look at the man who grabs the morsel you desire from (before your) eyes! Afterwards, when it acts, the will of the gods (is) strong. It is not quick to seize. But once it seizes, it does not let go. Be very fearful of the will of the gods.
§8 (ii 25´–51´) Further: Whatever silver, gold, clothing, (and) bronze implements of the gods you hold, (you are) their guards (only). (You have) no (right) to the silver, gold, clothing (or) bronze implements of the gods. What (is) in the house of the gods (is) not (for you).8 It is for the god. Be very careful. There is to be no silver or gold for the temple official. Let him not carry it on his own body. Let him not make it into an adornment for his wife (or) child. If, however, they give him silver, gold, clothing, (or) implements of bronze as gifts from the palace, let them be listed: “The king gave it to him.” As much as its weight (is), let it also be set down. Further, let it be set down as follows: “At this festival they gave it to him.” And at the end let the witnesses be set down: “When they gave it to him, this one and this one were standing there.” Further, let him not leave it in his house. Let him offer it for sale. When he sells it, he must not sell it in secret. Let the lords of Ḫatti be present and watch. Let them set down on a wooden tablet whatever he buys, and let them seal it. When the king comes up to Ḫattuša, let him take it (the tablet) into the palace. Let them seal it for him. If he sells it as he wishes, it (is) a capital offence for him. But whoever is not selling the gift of the king, on which the king’s name (is) stamped, but is nevertheless selling silver, gold, clothing, (or) implements of bronze; whoever gets hold of him, and hides him, and does not bring him to the gate of the kings, it (is) a capital crime for both of them. Let them both die. There is no […] from the god. There is to be no pardon for them.
§9 (ii 52´–72´) Further, you who (are) temple officials: If you do not perform the festivals at the time of the festivals; (if) you do the spring festival in fall, (or) the fall festival in spring, (or) if the right time for doing the festival (has) arrived, and he who is to do it comes to you, the priests, the “anointing priests,” the šiwanzanni- priestesses, to you the temple officials, and he seizes your knees, (saying) “The harvests (are) before me,” or a marriage or a journey or some other matter. “Let me off. Let that matter finish for me, and when that matter is finished for me, I will do the festival thus”: Do not do according to the wish of (that) man. He must not persuade10 you. Do not conduct business concerning the will of the gods. (If) a man persuades you, and you take payment for yourselves, the gods will demand it of you at a later time. They will stand in evil against your spirit, wives, children, (and) servants. Work only for the will of the gods. You may eat bread, you may drink water, you may make a house. But do not do the will of a man. Do not sell death, neither buy it.
§10 (ii 73´–iii 20) Further: You who are temple officials, be very careful in the matter of the watch. At nightfall go quickly down and eat and drink. And if anyone has thoughts of a woman, he may sleep with a woman. As soon as the s[un (is) up], let him [immediately bathe]. Let him come up pr[omp]tly into the temple to sleep. Whoever is a temple official — all [high] priests, lesser priests, anointing priests — whoever regularly crosses the threshhold of the gods: let each not neglect to sleep up in the temple. Further, let sentries be posted11 at night, and let them continue to make the rounds all night. Outside, let the guards keep their watch. But inside the temples let the temple officials make the rounds all night. Let there be no sleep for them. Each night one high priest is to be in charge of the sentries. And further, of those who are priests, someone shall be (assigned) to the temple gate and shall guard the temple. No one (with this duty) is to sleep with his wife in his own house. It (is) a capital offence for whoever they find down in his own house. Guard the temples very carefully, and let there be no sleep for you. Further, let the watch be divided among you. In whose watch a sin12 occurs, he shall die. Let him not be pardoned.
§11 (iii 21–34) Whatever rite (there is) for someone up in Ḫattuša: If someone normally admits a priest, an anointing priest, or guards, let him admit them only. If there is a guard for anyone, he also must go into the precinct enclosure. Let him not speak as follows: “I am protecting the temple of my god, but I will not go in there.” If there is some enemy idea that someone will attempt to cause damage, and those on the outer wall do not see him, (but) the temple officials inside see him,14 the guard must go after him. Let that (guard) not neglect to sleep next to his god. If, however, he does neglect (to do so), and they do not kill him, let them subject him to public humiliation. Naked — let there be no clothing on his body at all — let him carry water three times from the Labarna’s spring into the temple of his god. Let that be his humiliation.
§12 (iii 35–43) Furthermore you priests, anointing priests, šiwanzanni- priestesses (or) temple officials: [I]f some x[ ]–tuḫmeyanza person becomes drunk in the temple or another sacred building, and if he causes a disturbance or a quarrel in the temple and disrupts a festival, let them beat him. [Furth]er, he must celebrate that festival as established with cattle, sheep, bread, (and) beer. He may not omit (even) the thin loaf. Whoever neglects it and does not celebrate the festival (as) established, let it be a great sin to that one. Let him make up the festival. Be very careful about quarrels.
§13 (iii 49–54) Further: In the matter of fire be very careful. If (there is) a festival (going on) in the temple, guard the fire well. When night falls, however, extinguish well with water any fire that remains on the hearth. If, however, (there is) in the matter of fire some (burning?) dry wood here and there: Whoever is to extinguish it, even if only the temple in which (this) sin occurs is destroyed, while Ḫattuša and the king’s goods are not destroyed, he who commits this sin will perish along with his descendants. Of those in the temple none will be left living. They will perish together with their descendants. Be extremely careful concerning the matter of fire.
§14 (iii 55–83) Furthermore: You who (are) kitchen attendants of all the gods: Cupbearers, tablemen, cooks, bakers, (or) vintners, be very respectful regarding the will of the gods for you. Maintain great respect for the sacrificial loaves (and) libation vessel(s) of the gods. The place for breaking bread must be swept and sprinkled by you. Neither pig nor dog is ever to cross the threshold. You yourselves are to be bathed. Wear clean clothes. In addition, your hair and fingernails are to be trimmed. Let the will of the gods not find fault with you. If a pig or dog does somehow force its way to the utensils of wood or clay that you have, and the kitchen worker does not throw it out, but gives to the gods to eat from an unclean (vessel), to that one will the gods give excrement and urine to eat and drink. Whoever sleeps with a woman, as he performs a rite for the gods (and) gives them to eat and drink, let him go to the woman thus (clean). Furthermore, [break of 2–3 words].18 As soon as the sun (is) up, he must immediately bathe, and arrive promptly at the time of the gods’ eating in the morning. If, however, he neglects (this), it is a sin for him. Whoever sleeps with a woman and his superior (or) his supervisor presses (him), let him say so. However, if he does not dare tell (his superior), let him tell a fellow servant. He still must bathe. However, if he intentionally delays, and without bathing he forces his way near the gods’ sacrificial loaves (and) libation vessel (while) unclean,i and his fellow servant knows about him, and he appears to him (!): If he conceals (it), but afterward it becomes known, it (is) a capital offence for them and both must die.
§15 (iv 1–11) [Further: All you who (are) far]rm[ers of the god,] i[f …] there is anything … Or a sacrific[ial l]oaf o[r …]. The first fruitsj of animals which you, the farmers, present for the pleasure of the gods, present them promptly at the right time. Before anyone has eaten of them, bring them promptly for the pleasure of the gods. Let the gods not be kept waiting for them. If you delay them, it (is) a sin for you. They will consult an oracle about you, and as the gods your lords command, thus will they do to you. And they will fine you an ox and ten sheep and will (thus) calm the mind of the gods.
§16 (iv 12–24) Further: If you plant grain, and if the priest does not send you someone to sow the seed, (and if) he entrusts it to you for sowing, and you sow much, but you declare before the priest that it (was) little, or (if) the god’s field (is) productive, but the farmer’s field (is) ruined, and you call the god’s field yours and your field the god’s field, or (if) while you are storing the grain, you declare half (of it), while half (of it) you hide, and you later come and divide it amongst yourselves, (if) it afterward becomes known: You may steal it from a man, but you cannot steal it from a god. It (is) a sin for you. They will take away all your grain and pour it onto the threshing floor of the gods.
§17 (iv 25–33) Further: You who have the plow oxen of the threshing floor (of the temple): If you sell a plow ox, or you kill and eat it, and you (thus) steal it for yourselves from the gods (saying) “It died of emaciation,” or “It kept breaking (things),” or “It ran off,” or “A steer gored it,” but you yourselves eat it up, and it later becomes known, you will replace that ox. If, however, it does not become known, you will go (before) the god. If you are shown to be innocent, it (is due to) your protective deity. If, however, you are impure (guilty), it is a capital sin for you.
§18 (iv 34–55) Further: You who (are) cowherds (and) shepherds of the god. If (there is) a rite for any god at the time of bearing young, and you are to have either a calf, a lamb, a kid, or ŠALLITE ḪAGGARATE, do not delay it. Present it at the appropriate time. Let the gods not be kept waiting for it. Before anyone eats from the first fruits, bring them promptly to the gods. Or if there is a festival of milk25 for a god, while they are scraping (the cream off?) the milk, do not put it (the festival) off. Perform it for him. If you do not bring the first fruits of the gods promptly, but first eat of them yourselves, or you send them to your superiors, and it afterwards becomes known, it (is) a capital sin for you. If, however, it does not become known, whenever you bring them, you will bring them before the god (speaking) as follows: “If we have given these first fruits for our own desire first, or given them to our superiors, or to our wives (and) children, or to some other person, (then) we have offended the will of the gods.” Then you will drain the rhyton of the god of life. If you (are) innocent, (it is) your protective deity. If, however, you (are) guilty, you will perish together with your wives (and) children.
§19 (iv 56–77) Further: If you ever cut out a selection (of animals) and they drive them to the gods your lords, the cowherd and shepherd must go with the selected group. As it (was) selected from the enclosure (and) the fold, thus let them bring it in to the gods. They may not change it later on the road. If some cowherd or shepherd creates a deception while on the road, and turns aside either a fattened ox or fattened sheep, and receives a price (for it), or they kill it and consume it, and they put an emaciated one in its place: If it becomes known, it is a capital sin for them. They have taken the god’s most desired portion. If, however, it does not become known, whenever they arrive, they must take the rhyton of the god of life from the offering stand and declare as follows: “If we have withheld the best portion from the mouth of the gods for ourselves and given it to ourselves for our own desire or (if) we have sold it or exchanged it, or accepted a payment for ourselves, (or) put an emaciated one in its place, you, O god, pursue us together with our wives (and) children for the sake of your special portion.
Colophon (iv 78–81) First tablet of the rules of all the temple officials, of the kitchen attendants of the gods, the farmers of the gods, and of the cowherds of the god and shepherds of the god. Completed.
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 264. Studies: Gurney 1967:94; Hoffner 1973a:220; Hulin 1970; Kühne 1978:179–184; Moyer 1983:35–37; Sturtevant and Bechtel 1935; Süel 1985.
INSTRUCTIONS TO COMMANDERS OF BORDER GARRISONS (BEL MADGALTI) (1.84)
Gregory McMahon
An essential element in Hittite administration of provinces was the auriyaš išḫaš, literally “lord of the watch tower/ guard post,” often written with the Akkadogram BEL MADGALTI. This was the officer in charge of garrisons and administration in sensitive frontier provinces of the empire. The Hittite term is often translated “border governor”;
Hoffner has proposed “margrave,” which implies the idea of governors assigned to frontier provinces. The very detailed instructions for these officials make it clear that they were responsible not only for military command and reconnaissance, but also for administering the city in which they were stationed. This text is perhaps the most important source we have for understanding the nature of the Hittite treatment of conquered territories.
The text is extant in many copies and fragments; the importance of the margraves and their proper understanding of their duties may be inferred from the great number of copies of their instructions. The critical edition of the text is found in von Schuler (1957), which must be supplemented by Goetze’s edition of the first fifteen paragraphs in JCS.2 The text is number 261 in Laroche’s CTH. The main text is KUB 13.2. The first fifteen paragraphs are best preserved in KUB 13.1. Line numbers, unless otherwise noted, are for KUB 13.2.
§1 (KUB 13.1 i 1–3) Thus speaks His Maje[sty Arnuwanda the great king …] Thus let the margra[ves] be [instructed].
§2 (KUB 13.1 i 4–5) Let [tho]se forward [cities] be [well guarded]. Let the enclosure [be] well guarded.
§3 (KUB 13.1 i 6–8) While the guards have not yet come down from (their) watch, let the scouts [com]e down from the city.
§4 (KUB 13.1 i 9–11) Let them thoroughly inspect the kuranna– and bring back a report. The watchmen are to come down from (their) watch in the same way.
§5 (KUB 13.1 i 12–14) The main road scouts must take (their) posts.4 The sc[outs] must drive down from the city to in[spe]ct the kuranna–, and (then) inspect the kuranna–.
§6 (KUB 13.1 i 15–16) The scouts who [hold] the p[osts] on the main road, [whatever] they are to find, if […]
§7 (KUB 13.1 i 17) (Then) they may let out the cattle, sheep, and workers from the city.
§8 (KUB 13.1 i 18–22) But when night falls let the scouts make […] and take (their) posts. [… the roads (?)] which the scouts wa[tched] by day, they will [in the same way] watch [by night]. They must get the workers, cattle, sheep, horses, (and) donkeys moving and move [them] up [into the city].
§9 (KUB 13.1 i 23–28) Then let the scouts who [hold] po[sts] go up into the city. Let them bar the gates (and) posterns and shoot the bolts.b [Further] they must post troops behind the postern gates; they are to sleep behind the gate. Further, let them relieve the guards from (their) watch. They will keep (their) watch carefully.
§10 (KUB 13.1 i 29–32) But in the morning, the scouts [come out (?)] from the city. They must inspect the kuranna–s thoroughly […] and take (their) posts. They may [the]n let the workers, cattle, sheep, horse(s) and donkey(s) down out of the city.
§11 (KUB 13.1 i 33–34) Let the scouts hold (their) posts on the main road and let them keep […] at a distance. Let the city be guarded.
§12 (KUB 13.1 i 35–36) The garrison which holds the posts [must] also [be] protected. The scouts must cover the roads carefully and watch for signs of the enemy.
§13 (KUB 13.1 i 37–38) Furthermore, let the margrave [keep] the garrison [together] at (their) posts. [The garrison] of the post [is to be] gone from the city for two days (maximum).5
§14 (i 5´–6´) Since the roads (are) covered, when the scouts see any sign of the enemy, they will send a message immediately.
§15 (i 7´–12´) Let them (then) close up the cities; they are not to let out the fieldworkers, cattle, sheep, horses (or) donkeys. Let them guard (them). The margrave must have kept account and written record of the posts which are most forward and of the enemy’s routes. Further: Three scouts shall hold each road. Over the (whole system) three officers are to be in charge.
§16 (i 13´–19´) He (the margrave) must keep an account of the troops of the post and put it in writing. He will know the officers of second, third, and fourth rank in (each) place. And wherever the enemy attacks, the troops are to follow the enemy’s track for three days. They are to hold the roads for two days. The margrave must arrest and send before His Majesty anyone who does not kill the enemy, (whether) officer of the second, third, (or) fourth rank.
§17 (i 20´–21´) If, however, His Majesty (is) nearby, the margrave must appear before His Majesty and bring the offenders (with him).
§18 (i 22´–29´) Let them keep an account of the supplies (?) of the fortified cities which (are) in the province. Those posts (and) cities which (are) forward, into which the enemy can (most) quickly penetrate: When the [mar]grave […] those cities, as long as […], let him guard. Within, he […] [Two lines of cuneiform missing.]
§19 (i 30´–?) [Too broken to translate: Bottom of column i broken away; uncertain how long §19 was, or how many more paragraphs are lost.]
§20´ (KUB 31.84 ii 1–4) … the tower of … should be x gipeššar at the top, but around the bottom it should be six8 gipeššar. Further, it must be encircled with a gutter and a wooden mariyawanna-. The mariyawanna– is to be six gippeššar around the front, but let it (protrude?) five šekan.
§21´ (KUB 31.86 ii 6´–12´) [When] you fortify a [city],c let ḫutanu-s [of x] m[eters] be taken/removed. Up on top, let there be x [met]ers. Before you complete the fortifying of the city, the moat is to be three meters deep and two meters across. Before he refills [it] with water, let them pave [it] with stones.
§22´ (KUB 31.86 ii 13´–18´) Furthermore, let the gates, posterns, heads of stairways (and) windows of city–walls [b]e furnished with doors (and) bolts. Let nothing (of these) be lost.10 [Do not neglect] to apply plaster to the city-wall. And let it be smoothed. A thatched roof may become leaky. Let it not (happen).
§23´ (KUB 31.86 ii 19´–25´) In the … which you build, let the coppersmith make a […] drain. Let the gates of the city–walls [be equipped with drains (?)] of stone inside and outside in the same way. Furthermore: allow no one to dig in the city wall or burn near it. The owners must not let (their) horses, mules, (or) donkeys near the plaster (of the city-wall).
§24´ (KUB 31.86 ii 26´–32´) No one is to put a torch on a wooden (?) […] inside or outside. No one may take (part of) the city wall for an inn,11 nor may anyone start a fire near the wall. Allow no one to quarter their horses (or) m[ules there]. The city drains must not become clogged; they must be cleared out every year.
§25´ (ii 5´–10´) The margrave should organize the firewood for the fortified cities as follows: It should be twelve fingers in diameter13 and 2/3 meter in length. The diameter of the [x] wood is to be three fingers, with a length of ½ meter. The wood for the … should also be (stored) in great quantity. […] (and) ḫarduppi-, all are to be (stored) in great quantity.
§26´ (ii 11´–15´) Let it (the wood (?)) be stored under seal. Every year he (the margrave) is to take account of it and deposit it with the šaramna-. Let them (the troops (?)) scrape the buildings of the king, cattle barns, storehouses and baths which are older. They must replaster them with new stucco and renew them.
§27´ (ii 16´–20´) Let them regularly remove from the (interior) walls the plaster which is crumbling. Let them uncover the foundation stones (for inspection).14 Furthermore, the threshing floor, the straw barn, the temple, the baths, (the buildings associated) with the orchards, the vegetable gardens, and the vineyards must be built properly.
§28´ (ii 21´–25´) The drains of the bath, the cupbearers’ building, and the portico must flow freely; let (the men) regularly inspect them. Any that is stopped up with water they should clear out. And let the bird ponds which are in your district be well looked after.
§29´ (ii 26´–31´) In a city through which the margrave drives, he shall take account of the elders, priests, anointing priests, (and) šiwanzanni- priestesses. He shall speak to them thus: “A temple which (is) in this city, either that of the Stormgod, or of some other god, is now neglected,” or (“)It (is) ruined. (”)
§30´ (ii 32´–35´) (“)It (is) not attended to with regard to priests, šiwanzanni- priestesses, (and) anointing priests. Now attend to it again. (”) Let them restore it. As it was built before, let them rebuild it in the same way.
§31´ (ii 36´–41´) Furthermore: Reverence for the gods must be maintained, and special reverence for the Stormgod is to be established. If some temple (roof) leaks, the margrave and the city commander must repair it. Or (if) some rhyton of the Stormgod or any cultic implement of another god (is) ruined, the priests, anointing priests, and šiwanzanni- priestesses will renew it.
§32´ (ii 42´–46´) Furthermore: The margrave is to write down the cultic implements of the god and send it (the record) in to His Majesty. Further, they are to worship the gods at the (proper) times. Whatever is the (proper) time for any god, let them worship him at that time. (If) there is no priest, šiwanzanni- priestess, or anointing priest for any god, they must immediately assign one.
§33´ (KUB 40.56+31.88 iii 2, KUB 13.2 iii 1–3) Or whatever old cultic stela (there is), (if) it has not been kept track of, do an accounting of it now. Let them set it up, and furthermore whatever sacrifices (there were) for it formerly, let them provide for them.
§34´ (iii 4–8) Whatever springs (are) in the city, sacrifices are established for (those) springs: Let them celebrate them and attend to them. They must definitely attend (also) to those springs for which there is no sacrifice. Let them not omit them. They must consistently sacrifice to the mountains and rivers for which there are rites.
§35´ (iii 9–16) Further: the margrave, the city commander (and) the elders must consistently judge cases properly, and carry out (their decisions), as the rule for serious crimes (has been) done from of old in the (particular) country: In a city in which they are accustomed to execute, let them continue to execute. In a city, however, in which they are accustomed to exile, let them continue to exile. Furthermore, afterward (the people) of the city must bathe, and further let it be announced: Let no one allow (the exile) back. Whoever does allow him back, they will keep him under observation (?).
§36´ (iii 17–21) And when they worship the gods, let no one cause a disturbance in the presence of the gods, and let no one cause a disturbance in the festival house. Furthermore, let reverence be established toward priests, temple workers, anointing priests, (and) šiwanzanni-priestesses. Let the priests, anointing priests, and šiwanzanni- priestesses be reverent to the gods. If, however, anyone brings a case (in the form of) a sealed wooden (or) clay tablet, the margrave must judge the case properly and make things right. If, however, the case is too great (for him), he is to send it before His Majesty.
§37´ (iii 25–28) Let him not, however, decide for (his) superior (or) for (his) brother, his wife, or his friend. Let no one take a bribe. He is not to make the stronger case the weaker, or the weaker the stronger one. Do what (is) just.g
§38´ (iii 29–35) In whatever city you enter, call all the people of the city. Judge a case for anyone who has one and make things right. If a man’s slave, or a man’s female slave or a widow has a case, judge it for them and make things right. People of Kašiya, Ḫimmuwa, Tegara[ma] or Išuwa (may be) there. Supply them with everything.
§39´ (iii 36–41) A deportee who (has been) settled on the land you must supply with winter food stores, seed, cattle, (and) sheep. Provide him also with cheese, rennet (and) wool. Sow seed for whoever stays in the place of a deportee who leaves your province, and let him have sufficient fields. Let them promptly assign him a plot.
[§40´ (KUB 13.2 iii 42–44, KUB 31.84 iii 45´-46´) and §41´ (KUB 31.84 iii 47´–51´) are too fragmentary to translate. §40´ mentions field, orchard, garden, and the palace. § 41´ mentions horses and the palace.]
§42´ (KUB 31.84 iii 52´–56´) […] … [… Let] him build the walls [of the orchard]s well. In addition, irrigate them with water. Irrigate the meadow also with water. Let the meadow not be grazed.
§43´ (KUB 31.84 iii 57´–59´) Furthermore: Let the vine[yards] be well cultivated and constructed and the canals kept clean. Further, the word of the scout (?)19 must be taken seriously.
§44´ (KUB 31.84 iii 60´–65´) When, however, they distribute the seed to the deportees, the margrave must keep an eye on all of them. If someone speaks in this way: “Give me seed. I will plant it in my field, and further I will add (it) to my food supply,” then the margrave must keep an eye on (him). When harvest arrives, he (the margrave?) [is to] harvest that field.
§45´ (KUB 31.84 iii 66´–71´) All must be written down for you — the abandoned fields of a craftsman who has left, and those which (are) plots. When, however, they give out deportees, let them promptly assign places to them.20 Keep an eye concerning the matter of building on those who (are) assigned (?) to the fields. Let (things) be built well.
[§§ 46´–51´ are too broken for connected translation.]
§51´ (iv 13´–20´) Investigate thoroughly the palaces (and) dignitaries’ houses which (are) in your province, whether someone has damaged anything or taken anything, or (if) someone has sold something, or (if) someone has broken into a granary or killed any of the king’s cattle, or eaten (from) the granaries and then falsified the record tablets. Keep careful account of these (things).
§52´ (iv 21´–26´) Or (if) someone has taken something away from the servants, the margrave must arrest him and send him into His Majesty’s presence. He must keep an eye on the king’s cattle in winter. Support the work of winter (and) of harvest. Let the soup–places22 be well looked after. Let ice be collected, and let an ice storage house be built.
§53´ (iv 27´–?) Keep account of the plantings of the vegetable garden(s) and fields. Let them be enclosed (with fences). The portion which (is) for the pirešḫanna- cattle, let them eat that portion.
[The remainder of the paragraph is partially or completely broken away.]
§54´ [Only one sign remains of this paragraph. Uncertain how many more paragraphs are lost at the end of the tablet.]
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 261. Translation: ANET 210–211; Goetze 1959a; 1959b; 1960; Hoffner 1971; 1973b; Melchert 1980; von Schuler 1957.
INSTRUCTIONS TO THE ROYAL GUARD (MEŠEDI PROTOCOL) (1.85)
Gregory McMahon
The royal bodyguard of the Hittite court are denoted by the Akkadogram MEŠEDI. One extant tablet contains instructions for them, primarily detailing their duties as they assume responsibility for the king’s safety from the palace staff and as they escort him while he travels. Areas of responsibility are clearly delineated among the officials who see to guarding the palace and the king, primarily certain members of the palace staff, the MEŠEDI guard, the men of the golden spear and the gatekeepers. These last carefully monitor the movements of the guard.
The tablet, which is housed in Istanbul, is an unusual and difficult one, primarily because a number of additions in a smaller script were made to the text after its initial composition. Deciding how to fit these into the text of the instructions is a formidable problem. I have followed Güterbock and van den Hout’s transliteration (1991), which included a good deal of reconstruction of the text in placing the additions. The text is full of technical terms for various ranks and offices within the Hittite army and bureaucracy, discussion of which continues among Hittitologists. I have in general followed Güterbock and van den Hout in their translation of these terms. These terms are discussed very thoroughly in Beal 1992. I have also in general followed Güterbock and van den Hout in their understanding of technical terms for various structures within the Hittite palace complex; a section of their work is devoted to commentary on architectural terms.
Column I
§1 (i 1–8b, 19b–21b) [The first line is broken away, the second partially broken.] [When] the guards [go] up [to the palace], they [parade] before the gatekeepersb and courtyard sweepers. They go in and take their place at the courtyard’s gates. Their eyes are turned outward, and they cover one courtyard of the palace. c Then (the courtyard sweepers) sweep. (added): In the morning they raise the gate’s bolts on the outside, but they […]. The guards [wa]lk in front; they lift them as well as the kuranna–. The bolt of the gatehouse, however, they do not raise. The [guar]ds, the gatekeepers, (and) the courtyard sweepers come out. However, if inside, on one side of a building, a bolt (has) not (been) raised, or they are going to open some storehouse and the key (?) is lacking; if a low–ranking member of the palace staff comes out, the man of the golden spear does not give it to him. (However), when an upper level member of the palace staff comes out, either a commander of ten or an army bailiff (or) a [gua]rd comes, they give the key (?) to that one. If […] comes out, (then) either a guard or a man of the go[lden spear …] comes and […] [end of addition]
§2 (i 9–15) The guards take up (their) position in the courtyard of the guards. At the wall which is on the inside, against the palace, twelve guards stand and hold spears. If twelve guards (can) not stand up — either someone (has been) sent on a journey, or someone (has been) given leave (to go) to his home — and there are too many spears, they take away the spears that remain and leave them with the gatekeepers.
§3 (i 16–19, B–C 1´, D–E 1´–5´) At the wall, however, which (is) on the gate side, the men of the golden spear are standing. One guard, however, stands near the gates on one side, against the wall of the guard. And one man of the golden spear stands near the gates on the other side, against the wall of the men of the golden spear. They stand the watch in the daytime. […] But in the courtyard of the guards only a commander of ten of the men of the golden spear is to command. If someone stands (at attention) poorly o[r …] … […] Only the commander of ten of the men of the golden spear com[man]ds them. […] … One member [of the palace staff …] If, however, (it is) a guard, each says [it] to the other. If […] turns, once again […] at the wall says the same to […].
§4 (i 22–26) When the chief of the guard and the commander of ten of the guards come up: Because the chief of the guard has a staff, when he bows before the Tutelary Deity of the Spear, a guard who is high ranking takes the staff away from him. He places it on the altar. However, the staff which the commander of ten of the guard is holding he gives to a […] guard, who holds it for him.
§5 (i 27–32) All the [guard]s, however, w[ho hav]e staffs: Whenever they come [u]p, the g[uards] surrender [the staffs to the g]atekeeper. If, however, the king [does not designate a man], he [does not send] out a palace attendant, guard, or man of the golden spear. [If,] however, the king does designate [him], he sen[ds] him out. If, [however,] it (is) the last man, he does not sen[d] him out willingly.
§6 (i 33–38) The guard [does not go] to the gate at his own discretion. If he has only to urinate, he walks behind all the guards and says to the guard who is standing in front of him: “I (need to) go to the toilet.” (That) guard will speak to the next guard, that one will speak to a man of third rank, and the man of third rank will speak to a man of second rank.
§7 (i 39–42) The man of second rank, however, will speak to the commander of ten of the guard. If a chief of the guard is in the formation, (that is) he is in the [court]yard of the guard, the commander of [ten of the guar]d brings it (before) the chief of the guard: “He (needs to) go to the toilet.” The chief of the guard will say: “He may go.”
§8 (i 43–47) If, however, a bowel movement presses someone, he will tell it one to another, (until) it reaches the chief of the guard: “He (needs to) go relieve himself.” The chief of the guard will say, “He may go.” However, (if) His Majesty notices the guard who is going to relieve himself, (then) the matter of relieving oneself has reached the palace. But he may not go at his own discretion.
§9 (i 48–52) A guard does not step into the portico on his own. If, however, he does step (in) on his own, the gatekeeper will become angry at him (and say) “Either go up, or else go down.” If, however, a guard goes out through the portico, he carries (his) spear through the portico, but (when) he arrives at the postern, he leaves the spear with the gatekeeper, and he goes on down.
§10 (i 53–59) If, however, a guard slips away and takes (his) spear down through the postern, the gatekeeper shall seize him in (his) offence, and shall loosen his shoes. If however, the guard fools the gateman and takes (his) spear down, and the gatekeeper does not see him, the guard will seize the gatekeeper in (his) fault, (and say) “Since you did not see the spear, if some man tried to enter, how would you see him?” They will inform the palace about him, and they will question the gatekeeper. That (much) care regards the spears.
§11 (i 60–63) The guards (and) the palace staff do not go down through the main gate. They are to go down through the postern. One guard who is escorting a defendant, (or) someone whom the commander of messengers sends out, he may go down through the main (gate). Lords and commanders of a thousand also may go down through the main (gate).
§12 (i 64–69) When, however, the king goes out, one palace attendant comes out of the palace and calls out “Taḫaya” in Ḫattic. Taḫaya (is what) they call the barber in Ḫattic. A guard, a man of the golden spear, and a gatekeeper go to the gatehouse. They lift off the doorbolt from the main gate. They open the doors inward, and the man of the [gold]en spear […] … The barber, however, holds a galama– and wipes off the doors.
§12a (i 69–74) The grooms turn the carriage, but the guards step next to the vestibule on the right. If, however, in some city setting up on the right (is) not possible, they take their place on the left. What (is) constant (is) their setting up next to the vestibule. The guard who holds the stool […] for the carriage lets no one in or out. They leave from the court of the guards.
§13 (i 75–77) Two zinzinuil– men stand (there). They hold maces [and …] An officer of the army stands with them; he [holds] a staff. Further, they are clothed in [go]od [clothes], like ḫilammi- men. They […]
§14 (i 78–89) [After] that (there is) an interval of [one I]KU, (then) two m[en … stand]. They hold […] [Two more illegible lines to the bottom of the column.]
Column II
§15 (ii 1–4) After that (there is) again an int[erval of one IKU …] Two men of a field army unit are standing. With them stand [a commander of a field unit] and an army bailiff. [They hold …, and they] (are) walking before [the king].
§16 (ii 5–8) After that again (there is) an interval of one IKU. […] stand and hold spears. With them stand [a commander of a field unit] and an army bailiff. They hold sticks. They (are) walking before the king.
§17 (ii 9–14) Two officers of the spear-men, however, sta[nd] on the right opposite the king. They do not hold spears. A man of the golden spear [stands] wi[th them]. He holds a gold–plated [spe]ar. The palace attendant of the spear, however, holds a […], a whip, and the sistrum of the carriage. He (is) walking in front of [the king]. He goes and takes his place on the left of the carriage, next to the wheel.
§18 (ii 15–19) The guard sets up the stool. The king comes forth. The chief of the palace staff is holding him by the hand. The king sits in the carriage. The officers of the spear–men bow. Then they run (up) and walk in front. They march with the man of the [golden] spear.
§19 (ii 20–25) The man of the golden spear who stood with them, however, … […]. But the palace attendant of the spear gives the whip to the chief of the palace staff. The chief of the palace staff gives it to the king. The chief groom (is) walking in front of the carriage; he holds a staff. And when the carriage moves out, the chief of the palace staff bows after it, and gives over the king to the chief of the guards.
§20 (ii 26–31) The guard, however, who holds the stool, marches with the palace attendant of the spear at the wheel of the carriage on the left side. But when it reaches the gatehouse, he steps behind a widuli–. When the guards and palace staff are lined up with him, he gives the stool to the ma[n of the st]ool. He takes a spear and marches with the guards.
§21 (ii 32–38) While the guards march, two guards (are) walking in front. They hold spears, and they (are) in formation. [On] (their) left a palace attendant marches, carrying a lituus. He also (is) in formation with the two g[uard]s, so the three of them together (are) in formation. The guards (and) the [palace] attendants march in three groups: two groups of guards and one of palace attendants. They march one IKU behind the carriage.
§22 (ii 39–43) One palace attendant, however, goes; the supply officer gives him one strung bow, enclosed in a case, (and) one quiver (added: of a spear–man) filled with arrows. He goes behind, and moves along separated from the guards and palace attendants. He goes and takes his place at the left wheel of the carriage.
§23 (ii 44–46) After that (there is) an interval of one IKU. (Then) a man of the golden spear holds a plated spear, and the physician holds a sistrum (?). They march together, and the physician recites spells.
§24 (ii 47–50) After that (there is) an interval of one IKU. (Then) two spear-men march. They (are) either high–ranking or low–ranking officers. They are clothed in good ceremonial garments (and) shoes like ḫilammi- officials. A chief of the spear–men and an army bailiff march with them. They hold staffs.
§25 (ii 51–55) After that (there is) again an interval of one IKU. Then two men of a field unit march. They hold spears and (are) either high-ranking or low–ranking officers. They are clothed in good ceremonial garments (and) shoes like ḫilammi- officials. A field unit commander and an army bailiff march with them. They hold staffs.
§26 (ii 56–59) After that (there is) again an interval of one IKU. Then two men of a field unit march, holding spears. They are clothed in good ceremonial garments (and) shoes like ḫilammi- officials. A field unit commander (and) an army bailiff march with them. They hold staffs (?).
§27 (ii 60–63) The soldiers who (are) from a field unit keep the peaceful (crowd) lined up on the side. The left (group) keep (it) lined up on the left, the right (group) keep (it) lined up on the right. They march three IKU apart. If, however, somewhere ahead of one the road (is) narrow, he moves in tighter.
§28 (ii 64–67) Then if someone of the first (two) allows something in — whether horses or an out of control ox, it (is) the fault of the first one. If, however, some one of the last (two) allows something in, it (is) the fault of the last one.
§29 (ii 68–75) [If], however, they bring in a defendant, … […] … spears. Him … […] They set up […] [Five lines lost at the end of column ii.]
Column III
§30 (iii 1–5) [The gu]ard who [brings in] the defendants [takes his place] behind the man of the golden spear. [But when] the king requests a case, the guard [picks] it [out] and pl[aces] it in the hand of the chief of the guard. He tells the chief of the guard [what] the case (is), but the chief of the guard [tells the king].
§31 (iii 6–11) Then the chief of the guard goes, and two lo[rds stand] behind him; whether chiefs of chariot-fighters or commanders of ten, they stand [behind] the chief of the guard. One (man) holds the outside, whether a gu[ard or] some official. The guard who brings in the defendants runs back. He goes and takes his place (next) to the man of the golden spear. Then they pick out one case.10
§32 (iii 12–16) The chief of the palace staff, however, stands with the palace staff. Behind him stand two members of the palace staff; they are three. When they release a defendant, however, the chief of the guard stays in (his) place, but the two lords who stand behind him (added: either lords o[r gu]ards,) they go back and rejoin the guards.
§33 (iii 17–22) But when the guard who holds the outside brings in another defendant, the two lords who stand behind the chief of the guard march beside the defendant on the inside. The guard who holds the outside, however, goes behind the defendant when they line up the defendant with the guards. He walks on the outside of the defendant, on (his) right.
§34 (iii 23–26) If, however, a palace attendant brings in a message later, he comes in on the left only, behind the palace attendants. But when he comes back, he comes the same way, but he comes across in front of the guards.
§35 (iii 27–30) The guard who goes behind (him) goes on the right behind the guard. He goes back the same way, on the right. However, he does not go in front of the guards. He goes with the palace attendant.
§36 (iii 31–34) If, however, a defendant is standing (there), but (there is) a case for a guard or for a palace attendant, he does not go in front of the defendant. He goes behind him, and takes his place with the guard who holds the outside.
§37 (iii 35–40) But if the king calls out some foreign soldiers, either soldiers of the enemy Kaška, or soldiers of Kummaḫa or whatever soldiers, all the guards go behind (them). If, however, the spears prove to be too few for them, they take spears away from the spear-men and (then) go behind. They call that “encircling.”
§38 (iii 41–46) Armed with staffs, however, they do not go behind, it (is) not proper for them. If someone among the guards who remain has no spear, because they (can) take (only) staffs, they are not to be formed up with the pal[ace] attendant of the lituus. Two different palace attendants step forward into for[ma]tion with him. The guards however who are holding staffs [wal]k [behind (?)] them.
§39 (iii 47–50) If however a ḫazannu or commander of army bailiffs [is part of the form]ation, they13 form up with them. For them it (is) proper. However, [if] they go behind the carriage, [they] may not go behind (it) armed (thus) with staffs; they take spears.
§40 (iii 51–54) When the defendants have been completed, when the last defendant whom they escort out goes in front, the guard who brings the defendants says to the chief of the guard (added: or to … (or) to the guard who holds the inside): “It (the group of defendants) has been encircled.” The chief of the guard, (added: or the commander of ten guards or the army bailiff) tells the king. “It is completed.”
§41 (iii 55–59) If the king requests a chariot, a guard brings the stool and places it. The king grasps the chariot. The guard (responsible) for finishing (the process) holds a staff and takes the right horse by the bit in (his) right hand. With (his) left, however, he holds a kapur15 along with the staff. He holds the chariot down in front (so that) it does not tip.
§42 (iii 60–62) The guards give the spears which they are holding to the groom […]. When the carriage gets back home the groom gives the spears to the gatekeeper. He takes them up to the portico.
§42a (iii 63–65) If, however, (the king) returns by carriage, one guard waves with a spear to the guards and to the palace attendants and speaks thus in Hittite: “Over to the side.”
§43 (iii 66–70) The guards and palace attendants run around to the rear, and the grooms [reach (?)] over the left mule and turn the carriage around. The spears, however, of the spear–men and field unit men turn around; (thus) the first becomes the last.
§44 (iii 71–75) He (the king) goes to the palace by carriage. [As] he draws near the gates, the chanters [and] the r[eciter fall in] behind the spears of the spear–men. When the chanters [come] within the gates they cry out “Welcome!” The reciter, however, does not [cry out].
§45 (iii 76–78) When, however, the carriage[’s mules] reach [the gates,] the chanters [and the reciter] cry out.
Column IV
§46 (iv 1–7) [Men of] the city Ḫaḫḫa (are) walking behind. The spear[s] of the spear–men and [of the men] of the golden spear (are) walking in front, but the men of Ḫaḫḫa [ma]rch behind and sing. When however, the chanters come within the [gat]es of the portico, they cry out “Welcome!,” although the reciter [sti]ll does not cry out. However, when the mules reach the gates, the chanters and the reciter cry out. They go down through the postern.
§47 (iv 8–13) When just half [of] the spear–men has gone through the portico, it goes into that (place) where the spear–men (normally) go (after having) put down (their) spears. But a guard takes the stool and detaches himself from the palace attendants on the left. He walks to the wheel on the left side. When they turn the carriage, he sets up the stool.
§48 (iv 14–17) The men of Ḫaḫḫa (during this) are quiet. They do not come up to the gates [of the pal]ace. If (there are) two por[ticoes, however,] they come up to the lower gate. They do not, however, come up to the upper gate.
§49 (iv 18–24d) When the king steps down from the carriage, if a chief of the guard is standing (there), the chief of the guard prostrates himself behind (the king). He hands the king back over to the palace chief of staff. If, however, some other dignitary is lined up there in the front line, he (also) prostrates himself. But if no high dignitary is lined up there, the guard who is standing (there) prostrates himself. (added): Whenever he (the king) goes somewhere via chariot, however: When the king step[s] down from the chariot, [the chief of the gu]ard along with the guards prostrates himself behind the king. The guard (responsible) for finishing up prostrates himself opposite the right wheel of the chariot. The chariot driver, however, prostrates himself opposite the left wheel.
§50 (iv 25–27) The king goes [into] the palace. A guard, a man of the golden spear, (and) a gatekeeper g[o] in. They [come] up from the main gatehouse. They throw the doorbolt.
§51 (iv 29–30) The man of the golden spear leaves the plated spear which he holds in the courtyard where the guards normally step into the inne[r cha]mber.
§52 (iv 31–33) However, the guards who [hold] spears go out to the courtyard of the guards and take up (their) [position]. They stand there, hold[ing] spears. They do not put [them down].
§53 (iv 34–36) The guard, however, whom they [send (?)] goes out, holding a spear. He [comes down from (?)] the palace. But [when] he arrives at the postern, [he leaves] (his) spear with the gatekeeper [at the portico]. Ditto (i.e. he goes [out].)
§54 (iv 37–39) As soon as [the food] is done the footman [brings] from the ki[tchen …] (and) one cooked joint. And from the creamery [he brings] one pitcher of [sweet milk]. He gives [it to] the guards, and they eat it.
§55 (iv 40–41) They give […], one cooked joint, (and) one pitcher of sweet milk to the palace attendants also. And [they eat] it.
§56 (iv 42–44) But when […] comes [into the] inn[er chamber]. He calls out as follows to the man [of the golden spear and (?) … in Hitti]te: “[Let] them bring [it].”
§57 (iv 45–46) However, the man of the golden spear […] calls out as follows to the spear-men in Luwian: [“…”]
§58 (iv 47–49) A spear–man, however, [takes] a spe[ar]. The bronze (blade) [ of the sp]ear (is) tu[rned] down. He goes into the kitchen. [The spear–man (?)] speaks as follows: “To the inner chamber […].”
§59 (iv 50–52) Then the spear–man […]. The bronze (blade) of the spear, however, [is turned] up[ward …] The […] man […] [of (?)] the palace […]
Colophon (iv 53) First tablet of the Rules of the Guard. Not finished.
REFERENCES
Text: CTH 262; IBoT 1.36; Jakob–Rost 1965; Güterbock and van den Hout 1991. Discussion: Alp 1940; Beal 1992; Goetze 1960; Melchert 1980; von Schuler 1957.
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WEST SEMITIC CANONICAL COMPOSITIONS
A. DIVINE FOCUS
1. UGARITIC MYTHS
THE BAʿLU MYTH (1.86)
Dennis Pardee
The Baʿlu myth constitutes, by its length and relative completeness, the most important literary work preserved from those produced by the West Semitic peoples in the second millennium BCE. Before the discovery of this and related lesser works in the third and fourth decades of this century, virtually all our knowledge of West Semitic religious beliefs came from later descriptions emanating from cultures more or less alien to the one in which these myths were recounted, e.g., the Hebrew Bible or Philo of Byblos as preserved by the fourth–century (CE) Christian writer Eusebius. More recent discoveries show that the Ugaritic form of the Baʿlu myth had a long prehistory among the Amorite peoples (Durand 1993; Bordreuil and Pardee 1993). The presence in the Hebrew Bible of motifs similar to those in the Ugaritic myths indicates the existence of a Canaanite mythology very similar to the Amorite one, though determining the degree of similarity awaits the discovery of texts like the Ugaritic ones at a southern site.
The discovery of the Ugaritic mythological texts, in poetic form, has already demonstrated the high degree of similarity between second millennium poetic conventions in the northern part of the Syro–Palestinian area, surely descended from the old Amorite poetic tradition, and those of the Canaanite areas in the first millennium, visible in the poetic sections of the Hebrew Bible. The organization of a poem by parallel lines forming verses of two or three line–segments (“bicola” and “tricola”) appears to be characteristic of poetry throughout the old Northwest Semitic area. Though meter in the strict sense of the term appears absent from all these traditions, the parallel lines are everywhere characterized by terseness and roughly comparable length.
In spite of formal differences among them, the six tablets translated here are considered by most scholars to have originally belonged to a single work that would have consisted of some 2350 lines, approximately 1500 poetic verses. At one evidential extreme is the fact that the text is manifestly continuous from the last line of CTA 5 to the first of CTA 6; at the other is the fragmentary nature of CTA 1 and CTA 2, the latter consisting of two fragments that are not even certainly from the same tablet. The principal formal dissimilarity is in the number of columns in which the text is written on the tablets: CTA 1, 3, 5, and 6 are arranged in three columns per side, while CTA 2 apparently was in two columns (judging from the width of the one well–preserved column), and CTA 4 was in four columns per side. On the other hand, a virtually certain point of similarity is the script: CTA 4 and 6 bear a colophon identifying the scribe as ʾIlīmilku, a very high priestly official in the court of one of the kings named Niqmaddu, and the script of all six texts appears to be identical, making it highly probable that ʾIlīmilku inscribed them all. But did he write them and intend them as a sequence, or do some of these tablets belong to another sequence or to none at all? There is simply no empirical answer to that question, and the approach to the problem is therefore usually a literary one, which can be rephrased as another question: Can the six tablets be organized into a meaningful narrative sequence? To this question most scholars have responded positively, though the form of the response and the related organization of the six tablets have varied. The order most commonly accepted in recent years is followed here. It assumes that, for reasons not made clear in the text in its present state, ʾIlu, the head of the Ugaritic pantheon, at one time favors Yammu/Naharu, the god of bodies of water, but he allows Baʿlu to challenge Yammu; Baʿlu defeats his rival, then orders the construction of his own royal palace; Môtu, the god of death, challenges Baʿlu and eventually brings about his death; after a time in the underworld, Baʿlu returns to life. There appears to be a substantial qualitative difference between the kingship for which Baʿlu and Yammu vie and that of the other deities in this text who are ascribed kingship: each of these exercises kingship in his own way and in his own sphere (ʾIlu, Baʿlu, ʿAṯtaru, and Môtu are the four others who are described as kings), whereas Yammu and Baʿlu appear to be in competition for the same kingship. We have information from these texts on the domains over which Baʿlu, ʿAṯtaru, and Môtu rule (see notes 50, 98, 250), but no specific data on Yammu’s sphere of kingship. From the projection that Baʿlu gives of his defeat of Yammu (CTA 2 iv, up to line 5), we may plausibly infer that Yammu’s kingdom corresponded to his name, i.e., the sea. If so, how is it that he and Baʿlu are vying for the kingship in a sense that is not true of Baʿlu and ʿAṯtaru or Baʿlu and Môtu? Two considerations for the formulation of a response: (1) Whatever the nature of ʿAṯtaru’s kingship, that deity is negligible as a world power (CTA 6 i 56–67), while Yammu is a powerful foe to be defeated in battle (CTA 2 iv); (2) Yammu has a palace, location unknown, though it is unlikely that it is on the ‘heights of Ṣapānu’ where Baʿlu eventually had his palace built (CTA 4). Plausibly, therefore, Yammu’s palace was in the sea, while Baʿlu’s dwelling was on the heights of Ṣapānu, and the question was which of these two features of the earth was the appropriate place from which to exercise executive authority over the entire earth.
Because the myth deals with Baʿlu, the principal weather god of the Levantine peoples, and his vicissitudes, most authorities have interpreted the cycle as somehow reflecting the vegetative cycle, though the approaches have varied considerably. The symbolism apparent in the divine names appears to demand some form of naturalistic approach, though the precise interpretation of each element, as well as the overall interpretation of the myth, may be in doubt. Particularly problematic is the negative rôle, parallel to that of the god of death, of the watery elements, who are presented as enemies of Baʿlu, for in a naturalistic interpretation, such bodies of water might be seen as in cooperation with the god that produces rain, rather than inimical to him. Some scholars avoid the problem of conceptual origins and satisfy themselves with a description of the antiquity and broad spread of the motif; others consider that it is the superficial phenomenon of the effects of a storm on a body of water that is reflected in the mythological motif of animosity. Perhaps an appeal to the destructive aspect of the dual nature of water, beneficent in reasonable quantities, harmful when overly abundant or in turmoil, is in order. The explanation of the enmity of Baʿlu and Yammu/ Naharu as reflecting the rôle of water in a cosmological myth (Smith 1994:84–87) deserves further attention, but Smith does not explain why the enemy is Yammu/Naharu rather than one of the entities designated by the root thm (cf. Tiamat in the Mesopotamian version and tehōm in the Hebrew one; on forms of thm in Ugaritic, see below, note 45). It, in any case, only pushes the question back a stage: one must still ask why these watery forces were seen as the enemy of the creator deity (probably ʾIlu at Ugarit, though no cosmological myth is yet attested). An explanation by social/agricultural systems, i.e. dry farming vs. irrigation, does not appear plausible, for the salt sea (ym), unsuitable for irrigation, is clearly the principal antagonist of Baʿlu (the opposition of dry farming and irrigation is more appropriately evoked to explain the contrasted rôles of Baʿlu and ʿAṯtaru [see notes 48, 245, 250]).
CTA 17
ʾIlu Sends Messengers to ʿAnatu (ii?–13)
[Now you shall head off
to ʾInbubu,
Through a thousand courts,
ten thousand.…
At the feet of ʿAnatu bow and fall,
do homage and honor her.
Say to Girl ʿAnatu, b
repeat to the sister–in–law of Liʾmu:
Message of the Bull, your father ʾIlu,
word of the Gracious One, your sire:
Present bread offerings in the earth,
place love–offerings in the dust;
Pour well–being out into the earth,
calmness into the fields.15
Hurry, press, hasten,
to] me let your feet [run,
to me let] your legs [hasten;
To Mount X …]
…
The Envoys Go to ʿAnatu and Deliver ʾIlu’s
Message (ii 13–?)
Then [they head off
to] ʾInbubu,
Through a thousand courts,
[ten thousand.…
At the feet] of ʿAnatu [they bow and fall,
do] homage and [honor her.
They raise their voices and say] aloud:
Message of [the Bull, your father ʾIlu,
word of the] Gracious One, your sire:
[Present bread] offerings [in the earth,]
place [love–offerings] in the dust;
[Pour well–being out] into the earth,
[calmness into the] fields.
Hurry, [press, hasten,
to me] let your [feet] run,
[to me let] your [legs hasten];
To Mount [X …].
…
ʾIlu Sends for Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu (iii 1–16)
[Then they head off
to Memphis, (to) the god of it all,
(To) Crete (which is) the] throne [on which he sits, (to) Memphis (which is) the land of his own possession20],
Through a thousand yards,
ten [thousand furlongs.
At the feet of Kôṯaru] they bow and fall,
they [do homage and honor him].
They say to Kôṯaru-[wa-Ḫasīsu,
repeat to Hayyinu] the handicrafter:
[Message of the Bull, your father ʾIlu],
word of the Gracious One […]:
…
Hurry, press, hasten,
[to me let your feet run,]
to me let [your] legs hasten;
[To Mount?], the mountain of KS.
For [I have something to tell you],
a matter to recount to you:
[Words regarding wood, whisperings regarding stone],
conversings of heaven with [earth,
of the deep with the stars];
A matter (which) men cannot know,
[ (which) the hordes of the earth cannot understand].
Come and I will explain [it (for you)
in Mount X …].
Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu Obeys the Summons (iii 17–end)
Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu replies:
[Come, come, attendants of the gods],
you, you may tarry, but I’m [off
(From) Crete] for the most distant of gods,
(from) Memphis [for the most distant of deities]:
By double stretches below [the springs of the earth,
triple lengths] (in) the low places.
So off he [heads,
towards the Gracious One], the kindly god,
to Mount [?, the mountain of KS].
He penetrates Ilu’s abode,
[enters the dwelling of the King], father of
Šunama;
At [ʾIlu’s feet he bows and falls],
does homage [and honors him.
…]
the Bull ʾIlu […]
…
ʾIlu’s Feast (iv)
Unknown (v)
CTA 234
Yammu’s Message (i 11–19)
Yammu sends messengers,
[Ruler Naharu sends an embassy].h
They rejoice …
Go, lads, [don’t dally],
head for
the Great Assembly,
for [Mount Lalu.
At the feet of ʾIlu] do not fall,
do not prostrate yourself (to) the Great [Assembly.
Standing, say (your) speech],
repeat your information.
Say to the Bull, [my] father [ʾIlu,
repeat to the Great] Assembly:
Message of Yammu, your master,
of your lord Ruler [Naharu]:
Give (up), O gods, the one whom you obey,
the one whom the hordes (of the earth) fear.
Give (up) Baʿlu [and his attendants],
(give up) the Son of Dagan, that I might take possession of his gold.
At the Sight of the Approaching Messengers, the Gods Panic (i 19–29)
The lads head off, don’t hesitate;
they head
for Mount Lalu,
for the Great Assembly.
The gods have sat down to eat,
the sons of the Holy One to dine,
Baʿlu attending on ʾIlu.
The gods see them,
see Yammu’s messengers,
the embassy of Ruler [Naharu].
The gods lower their heads
onto their knees,
onto their princely thrones.
Baʿlu rebukes them:
Why, gods, have your lowered (your) heads
even to your knees,
even to your princely thrones?
As one must the gods answer,
the tablet of Yammu’s messengers,
the embassy of Ruler Naharu!
Lift, O gods, your heads
off your knees,
off your princely thrones.
And let me answer Yammu’s messengers,
the embassy of Ruler Naharu.
The gods then raise their heads
off their knees,
off their princely thrones.
The Messengers Arrive, Deliver Their Lines (i 30–35)
Thereafter the messengers of Yammu arrive,
the embassy of Ruler Naharu.
At the feet of ʾIlu they [do not] fall,
they do not prostrate themselves (to) the Great Assembly.
Standing, they [say] (their) speech,
[repeat] their information.
They look like a fire, two fires,
their [tongue] like a sharpened sword.
They say to the Bull, his father ʾIlu:
Message of Yammu, your master,
of your [lord], Ruler Naharu:
Give (up), O gods, the one whom you obey,
the one whom the [hordes (of the earth)] fear.
Give (up) Baʿlu and his attendants,
(give up) the Son of Dagan, that I might take possession of his gold.
ʾIlu Declares That He Accedes to the Demand (i 36–38)
The Bull, his father ʾIlu, [replies]:
Baʿlu (is) your servant, O Yammu,
Baʿlu (is) your servant, [O Naharu],
the Son of Dagan (is) your prisoner.
He will indeed bring you tribute,
like (one) of the gods he will bring [you a gift],
like one of the sons of the Holy One (he will bring you) presents.
Baʿlu Defends Himself (i 38–end)
Then Prince Baʿlu is sick (with rage),
[moreover he takes] in his hand a striking weapon,
in his right hand a smiting weapon,
the lads he [strikes].
[ʿAnatu] grasps [his right hand],
ʿAṯtartu grasps his left hand:
How could [you smite Yammu’s messengers,
the] embassy of Ruler Naharu?
…
Then Prince Baʿlu is (again) sick (with rage),
(to) the–field–of–a–man …
… Yammu’s messengers
the embassy of Ruler Naharu.
…
I, for my part, hereby say to Yammu your master,
(to) [your] lord [Ruler Naharu]:
[…] the word of Haddu the Avenger …
Hostilities Continue (ii)
Someone Sends Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu to ʾIlu (iii 2–3)
…
[ (From) Crete] to the most distant [of gods,
(from) Memphis to the most distant of deities:
By double stretches below the springs of the earth,
triple lengths (in) the low places].
Off He Goes (iii 4–6)
[So] off he heads
to ʾIlu at the source of [the double river,
midst the upspringings of the deeps. k
He enters] ʾIlu’s dwelling,
goes into the home of the King, [father of Šunama;
At ʾIlu’s feet he bows] and falls,
does homage and honors [him].
ʾIlu Enjoins the Building of Yammu’s Palace (iii 6–11)
[Thereafter, the Bull, his father ʾIlu, responds];
Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu be off:
(go) build a house (for) Yammu,
raise a palace (for) Ruler Naharu,
…
Be off, Kôṯaru-wa[-Ḫasīsu:
you] are to (go) build a house (for) Prince Yammu
[you are to raise] a palace (for) [Ruler] Naharu,
…
[Hurry!] build the house,
Hurry! raise [the palace]:
A house [covering a thousand acres,
a palace (covering) ten thousand] hectares.
…
The Solar Deity Addresses ʿAṯtaru (iii 15–18)
Šapšu, luminary of the gods, responds,
she raises her voice and [cries aloud]:
[Hear now, ʿAṯtaru]:
The Bull, your father ʾIlu, [will take blood] vengeance
for Prince Yammu,
for Ruler Naharu.
[Surely] he would not listen to you,
— the Bull, your father ʾIlu —
Surely he would pull up [the foundations of your] seat,
overturn [the throne of] your kingship,
break the staff of your rulership. m
ʿAṯtaru’s Reply (iii 18–23)
[ʿAṯtaru] responds […]:
[…] in me,
the Bull, my father ʾIlu.
As for me, I [have] no house [as (do)] the (other) gods,
[nor] court [as (do) the sons of the Holy One].
X will go down my throat,
they will be washed …
In the house of [Prince] Yammu,
in the palace of Ruler Naharu.
The Bull, his father ʾIlu, may take blood vengeance
for Prince Yammu,
[for] Ruler [Naharu].
But I am king […] am indeed king,
whereas you [have] no wife as (do) [the (other) gods,
nor young bride as (do) the sons of the Holy One].
Yammu Responds (iii 23–24)
Prince Yammu [speaks up],
Ruler Naharu [replies]:
[…] will send.
ʿAṯtaru’s Reply (iii 24–?)
ʿAṯtaru responds […]
Baʿlu Swears the Destruction of His Enemies, Particularly Yammu (iv?–5)
[…] I will indeed force them to leave,
moreover I will drive out […].
And in Yammu I will indeed destroy the resting place,
in Yammu, at (his) very heart, (I will destroy) the […],
[ (as for) Ruler] Naharu, (I will destroy) (his) neck.
There with the sword I will lay waste,
I will assault (his) house:
The powerful one will fall to the earth,
the mighty one to the dust.
Yammu’s Response (iv 6–7)
Hardly has the word left his mouth,
the utterance his lips,
When his voice is heard, there is a cry
(from) under the throne of Prince Yammu.
Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu Prepares the Weapons Needed to Defeat Yammu (iv 7–27)
Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu speaks up:
I hereby announce to you, Prince Baʿlu,
and I repeat, Cloud–Rider: n
As for your enemy, O Baʿlu,
as for your enemy, you’ll smite (him),
you’ll destroy your adversary.
You’ll take your eternal kingship,
your sovereignty (that endures) from generation to generation.
The First Mace (iv 11–18)
Kôṯaru prepares two maces
and proclaims their names:
You, your name is Yagrušu;
Yagrušu, drive out Yammu,
drive Yammu from his throne,
Naharu from his seat of sovereignty.
You’ll whirl in Baʿlu’s hand,
like a hawk in his fingers,
Strike Prince Yammu on the shoulder,
Ruler Naharu on the chest.
(So) the mace whirls in Baʿlu’s hand,
like a hawk in his fingers,
Strikes Prince Yammu on the shoulder,
Ruler Naharu on the chest.
(But) Yammu is strong, he does not collapse,
his joints do not go slack,
his body does not slump.
The Second Mace (iv 18–27)
Kôṯaru prepares two maces
and proclaims their names:
You, your name is ʾAyyamurru;
ʾAyyamurru, expel Yammu,
expel Yammu from his throne,
Naharu from his seat of sovereignty.
You’ll whirl in Baʿlu’s hand,
like a hawk in his fingers,
Strike Prince Yammu on the head,
Ruler Naharu on the forehead.
Yammu will go groggy
and will fall to the ground.
So the mace whirls in Baʿlu’s hand,
[like] a hawk in his fingers,
Strikes Prince [Yammu] on the head,
Ruler Naharu on the forehead.
Yammu goes groggy,
falls to the ground;
His joints go slack,
his body slumps.
Baʿlu grabs Yammu and sets about dismembering (him),
sets about finishing Ruler Naharu off.
ʿAṯtartu Intervenes (iv 28–30)
By name ʿAṯtartu reprimands (him):
Scatter (him), O Mighty [Baʿlu],
scatter (him), O Cloud–Rider,
For Prince [Yammu] is our captive,
[for] Ruler Naharu is our captive.
Baʿlu Carries Out the Order (iv 30–31)
…
Mighty Baʿlu disperses him
…
Someone Announces Yammu’s Death (iv 32)
Yammu is certainly dead, Baʿlu,
Yammu is certainly […]
…
CTA 366
Baʿlu’s Feast (i)
…
He serves Mighty Baʿlu,
regales the Prince, master of the earth.
The Food (i 4–8)
He arises, prepares,
and gives him food:
He cuts the breast (–cut) before him,
with a salted knife (does he cut) a slice of fatling.
The Drink (i 8–17)
He arises, serves,
and gives him drink:
He puts a cup in his hand,
a goblet in his two hands,
A large vessel, mighty to look upon,
belonging to the furnishings of the heavens,
A holy cup (which) women may not see,
a goblet (which) ʾAṯiratu (herself) may not eye;
One thousand kd–measures he takes from the new wine,
ten thousand he mixes into his mixture.
The Entertainment (i 18–22)
He arises, chants, and sings,
cymbals (being) in the hands of the goodly one;
The good–voiced youth sings
for Baʿlu in the heights of Ṣapānu.
Baʿlu’s Offspring (i 22–?)
Baʿlu sees his daughters,
eyes Pidray, daughter of ʾAru,
even Ṭallay, daughter of Rabbu.
Pidar he recognizes […]
ʿAnatu Does Battle with Men (ii)
… (with) henna (sufficient for) seven girls,
(with) scent of coriander and ʾANHBM.
The gate of ʿAnatu’s house is closed
and she meets the lads at the base of the mountain.
The First Battle (ii 5–16)
Thereupon ʿAnatu’s begins to smite (her adversaries) in the valley,
to attack (them) between the two cities.
She smites the peoples (dwelling) on the seashore,
wreaks destruction on the humans (dwelling) to the east.
Under her are heads like balls,
above her are hands like locusts,
heaps of fighters’ hands are like (heaps of) grasshoppers.
She attaches heads around her neck,
ties hands at her waist.
Up to her knees she wades in the blood of soldiers,
to her neck in the gore of fighters.77
With (her) staff she drives out the (potential) captors,
with her bowstring the opponents.
ʿAnatu Goes Home, but is not Satisfied (ii 17–22)
Then ʿAnatu goes to her house,
the goddess arrives at her palace.
But she is not sated with smiting (her adversaries) in the valley,
with attacking (them) between the two cities.
She prepares chairs for the fighter(s),
prepares tables for the armies,
footstools for the warriors.
The Second Battle (ii 23–30)
Much she smites, then looks,
attacks and then gazes (on her handiwork), does ʿAnatu.
Her liver swells with laughter,
her heart is filled with joy,
ʿAnatu’s liver with success,
As to her knees she wades in the blood of soldier(s),
to her neck in the gore of fighters.
Until she is satisfied, she smites (her adversaries) in the house,
attacks (them) between the tables.
The Peaceful Aftermath (ii 30 – iii 3)
They wipe up the blood of the soldiers in the house,
they pour out oil of peace in a bowl.
Girl ʿAnatu bathes her hands,
the sister–in–law of Liʾmu (bathes) her fingers.
She bathes her hands in the blood of the warriors,
her fingers in the gore of the fighters.
She prepares chairs (in addition) to chairs,
tables (in addition) to tables,
footstools she prepares (in addition) to footstools.
She gathers water and washes,
dew of heavens, oil of earth,
the showers of Cloud–Rider.
The dew (that) the heavens pour down,
the showers (that) the stars pour down.
She beautifies herself with ʾANHBM,
that range [a thousand furlongs] in the sea.
…
Someone Sings (iii 4–8)
[She? will take lyre in hand],
pull the harp to (her?) breast:
A song for the love of Mighty Baʿlu (she? will sing),
the affection of Pidray, daughter of ʾAru,
the love of Ṭallay, daughter of Rabbu,
the ardor of ʾArṣay, daughter of Yaʿibdarru.
Baʿlu’s Message to ʿAnatu (iii 8–31)
Then, lads, enter,
at ʿAnatu’s feet bow and fall,
do homage, honor her.
Say to Girl ʿAnatu,
repeat to the sister–in–law of Liʾmu.
Message of Mighty Baʿlu,
word of the mightiest of heroes:
Present bread offerings in the earth,
place love–offerings in the dust;
Pour well–being out into the earth,
calmness into the fields.
Hurry, press, hasten,
to me let your feet run,
to me let your legs hasten;
For I have something to tell you,
a matter to recount to you:
Words regarding wood, whisperings regarding stone,
conversings of heaven with earth,
of the deep with the stars;
I understand lightning which not even the heavens know,
a matter (which) men do not know,
(which) the hordes of the earth do not understand.
Come and I will explain it (for you)
in my mountain, Divine Ṣapānu,
in the holy place, in the mountain that is my personal possession,
in the goodly place, the hill of my victory.
===================
ʿAnatu’s Response (iii 32 – iv 51)
When ʿAnatu sees the two deities,
her feet shake,
behind, her back muscles snap,
above, her face sweats,
her vertebrae rattle,
her spine goes weak.
She raises her voice and says aloud:
How is it that Gupanu-wa-ʾUgāru have come?
What enemy has arisen against Baʿlu,
(what) adversary against Cloud–Rider?
I have smitten ʾIlu’s beloved, Yammu,
have finished off the great god Naharu.
I have bound the dragon’s jaws, have destroyed it,92
have smitten the twisting serpent,
the close–coiled one with seven heads.
I have smitten ʾIlu’s beloved ʾArišu (Demander),
have wreaked destruction on ʾIlu’s calf ʿAtiku (Binder).
I have smitten ʾIlu’s bitch ʾIšatu (Fire),
have finished off ʾIlu’s daughter Ḏabibu (Flame).
I have smitten for silver, have (re)possessed the gold of
him who would have driven Baʿlu from the heights of Ṣapānu,
him who would have caused (him) to flee like a bird (from) (the seat of) his power,
Him who would have banished him from his royal throne,
from (his) resting–place, from the seat of his dominion.
So, what enemy has arisen against Baʿlu,
(what) adversary against Cloud–Rider?
The Envoys Deliver Their Message (iv 52–67)
The lads answer up:
No enemy has arisen against Baʿlu,
(no) adversary against Cloud–Rider.
(Rather we have a) message (from) Mighty Baʿlu,
a word (from) the mightiest of warriors:
Present bread offerings in the earth,
place love–offerings in the dust;
Pour well–being out into the earth,
calmness into the fields.
Hurry, press, hasten,
to me let your feet run,
to me let your legs hasten;
[For I have something] to tell you,
a matter [to recount to you]:
[Words regarding] wood, whisperings regarding [stone,
a matter (which)] men [do not] know,
[ (which) the hordes of the] earth [do not] understand.
[Conversings of heaven with] earth,
of the deep [with the stars];
[I understand lightning] which not even the heavens [know].
[Come and] I will explain [it (for you)
in] my mountain, Divine Ṣapānu,
in the holy [place, in the mountain that is my personal] possession.
ʿAnatu Agrees to Baʿlu’s Request (iv 68–83)
Girl ʿAnatu replies,
yet again [the sister–in–law of] Liʾmu:
I will indeed present bread offerings [in the earth],
place love–offerings in the dust;
I will pour [well–being] out into the earth,
calmness into the fields.
May Baʿlu place his watering devices in [the heavens],
may [Haddu] bring the [rain of] his X.
(Then) I, for my part, will surely present bread offerings in the earth,
place love–offerings [in] the dust;
I will pour well–being out into the earth,
calmness into the fields.
Moreover, I say this:
Come, come, attendants of the gods,
you, you may tarry, but I’m off
(From) ʾUǵaru for the most distant of gods,
(from) ʾInbubu for the most distant of deities:
By double stretches below the springs of the earth,
triple lengths (in) the low places.
ʿAnatu Visits Baʿlu (iv 84–?)
So off she heads,
toward Baʿlu in the heights of Ṣapānu.
(From) a thousand yards off,
ten thousand furlongs,
Baʿlu sees his sister coming,
his father’s daughter striding along.
He shoos the (other) women away,
places beef in front of her,
a fatling before her.
She gathers water and washes,
dew of heavens, oil of earth.
The dew (that) the heavens pour down,
the showers (that) the stars pour down.
She beautifies herself with ʾANHBM,
that [range a thousand furlongs in the sea.]
…
Baʿlu’s Claim to a Palace (iv 94–99)
[For Baʿlu has no house as (do) the (other) gods,
(no) court] as (do) the sons of [ʾAṯiratu,
(No) dwelling (as does) ʾIlu, (no) shelter (as do)] his sons,
(no) dwelling (as does) [the Great Lady, ʾAṯiratu of the Sea],
(No) dwelling (as does) Pidray, [daughter of ʾAru,
(no) shelter] (as does) Ṭallay, daughter of Rabbu,
[ (no) dwelling (as does) ʾArṣay], daughter of Yaʿibdarru,
[ (no) dwelling (as do)] the honored [brides].
ʿAnatu’s Reply (iv 99 – v 4)
[Girl ʿAnatu] replies:
The Bull, [my father] ʾIlu, will come around to me,
he’ll come around to me and to him […].
…
[I’ll] trample him to the ground like a lamb,
[I’ll cause] his gray hair [to flow] with blood,
the gray hairs of his beard [with gore],
That is if he does not give a house to Baʿlu like (that of) the (other) gods,
[a court] like (that of) the sons of ʾAṯiratu.
ʿAnatu Is Off to Visit ʾIlu (v 4–9)
[She digs in] (her) feet,
[takes off across] the earth;
She [heads] off
[towards ʾIlu] at the source of the [double] river,
midst the [upspringings] of the [deeps].
She penetrates Ilu’s abode,
enters the dwelling of the King, father of [Šunama],
She bends over and enters the abode,
addresses the lord of the gods.
ʾIlu Responds (v 10–18?)
The Bull, her father ʾIlu, hears her voice,
[responds] (from) within seven rooms,
[ (from) within] eight locked [chambers]:
You [must cry] aloud to ʾIlu [your lord]
…
Šapšu, luminary of the gods, [glows hot],
the heavens are powerless under the control of [Môtu, the beloved of ʾIlu].
ʿAnatu Gets Tough (v 19–25)
Girl ʿAnatu replies:
[In the grandeur of] your house, O ʾIlu,
in the grandeur of [your] house do not rejoice,
do not rejoice in the height of [your] palace.
Will I not seize them in my right hand,
squeeze [them] in my broad grasp?110
I’ll [smite the …] of your head,
I’ll make your gray hair flow [with blood],
the gray hairs of your beard with gore.
ʾIlu Reacts Placatingly (v 25–29)
ʾIlu responds (from) within seven rooms,
(from) within eight locked chambers:
[I] know [you], (my) daughter, (I know) that [you] are a manly sort,
and that among goddesses there is none so emotional as you.
What do you request, Girl ʿAnatu?
ʿAnatu Tries Flattery (v 29–34)
Girl ʿAnatu replies:
Your decision(s), ʾIlu, (are) wise,
your wisdom is forever,
your decision(s) (provide) a life of good fortune.
(Now,) our king is Mighty Baʿlu,
(he is) our ruler and there is none above him.
All of us (other gods) bear his vessel,
all of us bear his cup.
Again, Baʿlu’s Claim to a Palace (v 35–44)
(But) groaning he does cry out to the Bull, his father ʾIlu,
to the king who established him, ee
He cries out to ʾAṯiratu and to her sons,
to the goddess and the host of her kin:
Baʿlu has no house as (do) the (other) gods,
(no) court as (do) the sons of ʾAṯiratu,
(No) dwelling (as does) ʾIlu, (no) shelter (as do) [his sons],
(no) dwelling (as does) the Great Lady, ʾAṯiratu of the Sea,
(No) dwelling (as does) Pidray, daughter of ʾAru,
[ (no) shelter] (as does) Ṭallay, [daughter of] Rabbu,
(no) dwelling [ (as does) ʾArṣay, daughter of Yaʿibdarru],
(no) dwelling [ (as do) the honored brides].
…
The Summons to Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu (vi)
Cross the mountain, cross the height,
cross the shores of heavenly Nupu.
Have (your nets) drawn in, O fisherman of ʾAṯiratu,
come, O Qudšu-ʾAmruru.
You must head off
to Memphis, (to) the god of it all,
(To) Crete (which is) the throne (on which) he sits,
(to) Memphis (which is) the land of his own possession,
Through a thousand yards,
ten thousand furlongs.
At the feet of Kôṯaru bow and fall,
do homage and honor him.
Say to Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu,
repeat to Hayyinu the handicrafter:
Message of Mighty [Baʿlu],
word [of the mightiest of warriors:]
…
CTA 4120
…
Yet Again, Baʿlu’s Claim to a Palace (i 4–19)
[ (But) groaning he does cry] out to the Bull, [his father ʾIlu],
to ʾIlu, the king [who established him],
[He cries] out to ʾAṯiratu [and to her sons],
to the goddess [and the host of] her [kin]:
[Baʿlu has no house as (do) the (other) gods,
(no) court as (do) the sons of] ʾAṯiratu,
(No) dwelling (as does) ʾIlu, (no) shelter (as do) his sons,
(no) dwelling (as does) the Great Lady, ʾAṯiratu
of the Sea.
(No) dwelling (as do) the honored brides:
(no) dwelling (as does) Pidray, daughter of ʾAru,
(no) shelter (as does) Ṭallay, daughter of Rabbu,
(no) dwelling (as does) ʾArṣay, daughter of Yaʿibdarru.
Gifts Suggested and Prepared (i 20–44)
I must also say this to you:
You really should prepare a gift for the Great Lady, ʾAṯiratu of the Sea,
a present for the Progenitress of the Gods.122
Hayyinu steps up to the bellows,
in the hands of Ḫasīsu are the tongs.
He casts silver, causes gold to flow,
he casts silver by the thousands (of shekels),
he casts gold by the ten thousands (of shekels).
He casts ḪYM and TBTḪ:
A (throne–)stand for ʾIlu of twenty thousand (shekels’ weight),
a (throne–)stand for ʾIlu with silver decorations,
interspersed with (decorations of) ruddy gold;
A chair for ʾIlu, a seat of finest (gold),
a footstool for ʾIlu (!) covered with the brightest (metal);
A bed for ʾIlu of the finest sort,
above, he places an engraving;
A table for ʾIlu filled with creatures,
creepy–crawlers from the foundations of the earth;130
A bowl for ʾIlu, hammered thin as (they do in) ʾAmurru,
formed as (they do in) the land of YMʾAN,
which has on it bulls by the ten thousands.
…
===================
ʾAṯiratu at Home (ii 3–?)
She has taken her spindle [in hand],
a spindle befitting her high station in her right hand.
As her flesh has become soiled,
she puts her garments into the sea,
her twice–soiled (body) into the rivers.
She places a pot on the fire,
a pan on top of the coals,
So as to prepare a (warm) drink for the Bull, the kindly god,
so as to make a present to the Creator of creatures.136
Baʿlu and ʿAnatu Arrive with ʾAṯiratu’s Gifts (ii 12–29)
When she looks up and sees Baʿlu coming,
when ʾAṯiratu (!) sees Girl ʿAnatu arriving,
the sister–in–law of [Liʾmu] striding along,
Her feet [shake],
behind, her back muscles [snap,
above], her face sweats,
her [vertebrae] rattle,
[her] spine goes weak.
She raises her voice and says aloud:
How is it that Mighty Baʿlu has come?
How is it that Girl ʿAnatu has come?
Have those who would smite me smitten my sons,
or (have) [those who would finish me off] (smitten) the host of my kin?
(But) when ʾAṯiratu spies the [works] of silver,
the works of silver and [the objects] of gold,
they bring joy to the Great Lady, ʾAṯiratu of the Sea.
ʾAṯiratu Enjoins her Attendant to Complete an Unknown Task (ii 29–?)
Aloud [she cries] to her lad:
Look at the skillfully wrought thing(s) and [behold!]
O fisherman of the Great Lady, ʾAṯiratu [of the Sea],
take the net in your hand,
the great [X] upon your two hands.
[…] in Yammu, the beloved of ʾIlu,
…
Baʿlu Complains of His Treatment By the Other Gods (iii 10–22)
Again Mighty Baʿlu (speaks),
Cloud–Rider tells his story:
[…] they stood up and cast scorn upon me,
they arose and spat upon me
in the assembly of the sons of the gods;
[X] was set upon my table,
mockery in the cup from which I drink.
Now there are two (kinds of) feasts (that) Baʿlu hates,
three (that) Cloud–Rider (hates):
An improper feast,
a low–quality feast,
and a feast where the female servants misbehave.
There, impropriety was certainly seen,
there, misbehavior of the female servants (was certainly seen).
Baʿlu and ʿAnatu Arrive chez ʾAṯiratu, Present their Gifts, and Feast (iii 23–?)
Thereupon Mighty Baʿlu arrives,
Girl ʿAnatu arrives.
They offer the gifts to the Great Lady, ʾAṯiratu of the Sea,
the presents to the Progenitress of the Gods.
The Great Lady, ʾAṯiratu of the Sea, responds:
How is it that you offer gifts to the Great Lady, ʾAṯiratu of the Sea,
presents to the Progenitress of the Gods?
Have you offered gifts to the Bull, the kindly god,
presents to the Creator of creatures?
Girl ʿAnatu replies:
We would (now) offer gifts to the Great Lady,
ʾAṯiratu of the Sea,
presents to the Progenitress of the Gods.
[Afterwards] we will also present him with gifts.
[…] Mighty Baʿlu
[…] the Great Lady, ʾAṯiratu of the Sea,
[…] Girl ʿAnatu.
[Thereupon the gods] eat and drink,
[they take] sucklings,
[with] a salted [knife] cutlets from [a fatling].
[They drink] wine from goblets
[red] wine [from golden cups].
…
ʾAṯiratu Prepares to Visit ʾIlu (iv 1–19)
[The Great Lady], ʾAṯiratu of [the Sea, responds:
Listen, O Qudšu-]wa-ʾAmruru,
[O fisherman of the Great Lady], ʾAṯiratu of the Sea:
[Saddle the donkey], harness the ass,
[put (on it) trappings of] silver,
[decorations] of yellow (gold),
prepare the trappings of [my] jennet.
Qudšu-wa-ʾAmruru listens:
He saddles the donkey, harnesses the ass,
puts (on it) trappings of silver,
decorations of yellow (gold),
prepares the trappings of her jennet.
Qudšu-wa-ʾAmruru grasps (her),
puts ʾAṯiratu on the donkey’s back,
on the ass’s beautiful back.
Qudšu sets off, bright as fire,
ʾAmruru like a star in front,
behind (came) Girl ʿAnatu.
As for Baʿlu, he went off to the heights of Ṣapānu.
The Visit (iv 20 – v 81)
So off she goes
to ʾIlu at the source of the double river,
midst the upspringings of the deeps.
She penetrates ʾIlu’s abode,
enters the dwelling of the King, father of Šunama;
At ʾIlu’s feet she bows and falls,
does homage and honors him.
ʾIlu Expresses His Happiness at the Sight of ʾAṯiratu (iv 27–39)
When ʾIlu sees her,
his brow unfurrows and he laughs;
He taps his feet on the footstool
and snaps his fingers.
He raises his voice and says aloud:
How is it that the Great Lady, ʾAṯiratu of the Sea, has come?
How is it that she has entered (here), the Progenitress of the Gods?
Are you really hungry (because) you’ve been wandering?
Are you really thirsty (because) [you’ve been] traveling all night?
Eat or drink,
eat some bread at the table,
drink some wine from a goblet,
some red wine from golden cups.
Or is it the ‘hand’ of ʾIlu the king that has excited thoughts in you,
the love of the Bull that has aroused you?
ʾAṯiratu Recites her Message, Including Baʿlu’s Claim to a Palace (iv 40–57)
The Great Lady, ʾAṯiratu of the Sea, replies:
Your decision(s), ʾIlu, (are) wise,
(they are) eternal wisdom,
your decision(s) (provide) a life of good fortune.
(Now,) our king is Mighty Baʿlu,
(he is) our ruler and there is none above him.
All of us (other gods) [bear] his vessel,
all of us bear his cup.
(But) groaning he does cry out to the Bull, his father ʾIlu,
to ʾIlu the king who established him,
He cries out to ʾAṯiratu and to her sons,
to the goddess and the host of her kin:
Baʿlu has no house as (do) the (other) gods,
(no) court as (do) the sons of ʾAṯiratu,
(No) dwelling (as does) ʾIlu, (no) shelter (as do) his sons,
(no) dwelling (as does) the Great Lady, ʾAṯiratu of the Sea,
(No) dwelling (as do) the honored brides:
(no) dwelling (as does) Pidray, daughter of ʾAru,
(no) shelter (as does) Ṭallay, daughter of Rabbu,
(no) dwelling (as does) ʾArṣay, daughter of Yaʿibdarru.
ʾIlu Gives the Go–Ahead (iv 58 – v 63)
The Gracious One, the kindly god replies:
So I am a servant, an attendant on ʾAṯiratu!
So I am a servant, accustomed to tools!
And ʾAṯiratu is a servant–girl (who) will make the bricks! jj
Let a house be built for Baʿlu like the (other) gods’ (houses),
a court like (the courts of) the sons of ʾAṯiratu.
ʾAṯiratu Congratulates ʾIlu on the Positive Results of his Decision (v 64–73)
The Great Lady, ʾAṯiratu of the Sea, replies:
Great indeed, ʾIlu, is (your) wisdom,
your gray beard surely instructs you,
the respite that is yours alone (surely instructs you).
For now Baʿlu (can) send his rain in due season,
send the season of driving showers;
(can) Baʿlu shout aloud in the clouds, kk
shoot (his) lightning–bolts to the earth;
A house of cedar he may complete,
Even a house of bricks he may raise.
ʾAṯiratu Announces That He May Undertake Preparations (v 74–81)
Let them announce to Mighty Baʿlu:
Summon an (entire) caravan to your house,
wares to your palace;
Let the mountains bring you massive amounts of silver,
(let) the hills (bring you) the choicest gold,
let them bring you magnificent gems.
Then build a house of silver and gold,
a mansion of purest lapis–lazuli.
The Message is Borne by ʿAnatu (v 82–97)
(This) brings joy to Girl ʿAnatu.
She digs in her feet,
takes off across the earth;
She heads off
toward Baʿlu in the heights of Ṣapānu.
(While still) a thousand yards off,
ten thousand furlongs,
Girl ʿAnatu laughs,
raises her voice and shouts aloud:
You have good news, Baʿlu!
I bring you good news!
They may build for you a house like (those of) your brothers,
a court like (those of) your kin.
Summon an (entire) caravan to your house,
wares to your palace;
Let the mountains bring you massive amounts of silver,
(let) the hills (bring you) the choicest gold,
Then build a house of silver and gold,
a mansion of purest lapis–lazuli.
Baʿlu Makes the Preparations (v 97–102)
(This) brings joy to Mighty Baʿlu:
He summons an (entire) caravan to his house,
wares to his palace;
The mountains bring him massive amounts of silver,
the hills (bring him) the choicest gold,
they bring him magnificent gems.
Then He Sends for Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu (v 103–105)
He sends a message to Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu:
=======
Go back to the recitation: “When the two lads take the message …”
______
Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu Arrives, Is Feted, and Urged to Work (v 106–119)
Thereafter Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu arrives.
They place beef in front of him,
a fatling before him.
A chair is prepared and they seat (him)
at the right hand of Mighty Baʿlu,
while [the gods] eat and drink.
Mighty [Baʿlu] speaks up:
…
Hurry! (raise) a house, O Kôṯaru,
hurry! raise a palace,
hurry! you must build a house.
Hurry! you must raise a palace
on the heights of Ṣapānu,
A house covering a thousand acres,
a palace (covering) ten thousand hectares.
Owner and Contractor Argue About a Window (v 120 – vi 15)
Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu replies:
Listen, O Mighty Baʿlu,
understand, O Cloud–Rider:
Must I not put a latticed window in the house,
a window–opening in the palace?
Mighty Baʿlu replies:
You must not put a latticed window in [the house],
[no window–opening] in the palace!
Kôṯaru[–wa]-Ḫasīsu replies:
You’ll come around, Baʿlu, to [my view].
Kôṯaru[–wa–]Ḫasīsu repeats (his) speech:
Listen, please, O Mighty Baʿlu:
Must I not put a latticed window in the house,
a window–opening in the palace?
Mighty Baʿlu replies:
You must not put a latticed window in the house,
no window–opening in the palace!
Lest Pidray, daughter of ʾAru, do [X],
[lest] Ṭallay, daughter of Rabbu, [do Y].
[…] ʾIlu’s beloved, Yammu,
[…] cast scorn upon me,
and spit upon me […].
Kôṯaru-[wa-Ḫasīsu] replies:
You’ll come around, Baʿlu, to my view.
The Palace is Built (vi 16–40)
[Hurriedly] they build his house,
[hurriedly] they raise his palace.
(Some workers) [go] to Lebanon and its trees,
to Siryon (and) its choicest cedars;
[They X] Lebanon and its trees,
Siryon (and) its choicest cedars.
Fire is placed in the house,
flames in the palace.
For a day, two (days),
the fire consumes (fuel) in the house,
the flames (consume fuel) in the palace;
For a third, a fourth day,
the fire consumes (fuel) in the house,
the flames (consume fuel) in the palace;
For a fifth, a sixth day,
the fire consumes (fuel) in the house,
the flames (consume fuel) in the palace;
Then on the seventh day,
the fire is removed from the house,
the flames from the palace.
(Voilà!) the silver has turned into plaques,
the gold is turned into bricks.
(This) brings joy to Mighty Baʿlu:
You have built my house of silver,
my palace of gold.
(Then) Baʿlu completes the furnishing of [his] house,
Haddu completes the furnishing of his palace.
The Inaugural Banquet (vi 40–?)
He slaughters bovids [and] caprovids,
he fells bulls [and] fattened goats,
yearling calves,
lambs (and) great numbers of kids.
He invites his brothers into his house,
his kin into his palace,
He invites the seventy sons of ʾAṯiratu:
He provides the gods with rams (and) wine,
he provides the goddesses with ewes (and) [wine];
He provides the gods with bulls (and) wine,
he provides the goddesses with cows (and) [wine];
He provides the gods with chairs (and) wine,
he provides the goddesses with seats (and) [wine];
He provides the gods with jars of wine,
he provides the goddesses with barrels of [wine].
So the gods eat and drink,
they take sucklings,
with a salted knife cutlets from [a fatling].
They drink wine from goblets,
red [wine from] golden cups.
…
Baʿlu Takes Possession of His Cities (vii 7–12)
He goes? from [city] to city,
goes again from town to town.
He takes possession of sixty–six cities,
of seventy–seven towns;
Eighty does Baʿlu [X],
ninety does he [Y].
Baʿlu Decides He Wants a Window After All (vii 13–25)
(Then) Baʿlu [returns] to (his) house.
Mighty Baʿlu speaks up:
I am going to charge Kôṯaru, this very day,
Kôṯaru, this very moment,
With opening up a window in (my) house,
a latticed window in (my) palace,
With opening up a rift in the clouds,
according to the pronouncement of Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu.
Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu breaks out laughing,
he raises his voice and says:
Didn’t I tell you, O Mighty Baʿlu,
(that) you, Baʿlu, would come around to my word?
The Window Is Put to Immediate Use (vii 25–37)
(So) he opens up a window in the house,
a latticed window in the palace.
Baʿlu (himself) opens up the rift in the clouds,
Baʿlu emits his holy voice,
Baʿlu makes the thunder roll over and over again.
His [holy] voice [causes] the earth [to tremble],
[at his thunder] the mountains shake with fear.
…
the high places of the earth totter.
Baʿlu’s enemies grasp hold of (the trees of) the forest,
Haddu’s adversaries (grasp hold of) the flanks of the mountain(s).
Baʿlu’s Powers Incite Him to Hubris (vii 37 – CTA 5 ii)
Mighty Baʿlu speaks up:
Enemies of Haddu, why do you shake with fear?
Why do you shake with fear, you who take up arms against Dimārānu?
Baʿlu looks ahead of (where) his hand (will strike)
when the cedar (shaft) dances in his right hand.
Since Baʿlu has taken up residence in his house
is there or is there not a king
(who) can establish himself in the land of (Baʿlu’s) dominion?
Why don’t I send a courier to Môtu, son of ʾIlu,
a messenger to the beloved warrior of ʾIlu?
(For) Môtu is always proclaiming,
The beloved one (of ʾIlu) is always claiming:
I am the only one who rules over the gods,
who fattens gods and men,
who satiates the hordes of the earth.
Baʿlu Calls his Messengers (vii 52–?)
When Baʿlu calls to his lads:
Look, [Gupanu–]wa-ʾUgāru:
The sea [is enveloped] in darkness,
in obscurity the [highest] peaks.…
…
The Directions (viii 1–32)
So head off
for Mount Tarǵuziza,
for Mount Ṯarrummagi,
to the two ruin–mounds that mark the borders of the earth.
Lift up (one) mountain on (your) hands,
(one) wooded hill on (your) palms.
Then go down to the place of seclusion (within) the earth,
you must be counted among those who go down into the earth. ww
Once (down there) head
for his city Hamray,
(for) Mukku where his throne is established,
(for) Ḫôḫu, the land of his own possession.
But be careful, couriers of the gods:
Don’t get near Môtu, son of ʾIlu,
Lest he take you as (he would) a lamb in his mouth,
lest you be destroyed as (would be) a kid in his crushing jaws.
Šapšu, luminary of the gods, glows hot,
the heavens are powerless under the control of Môtu, the beloved of ʾIlu.
(From) a thousand yards off,
ten thousand furlongs,
At the feet of Môtu bow and fall,
do homage and honor him.
Say to Môtu, son of ʾIlu,
repeat to the beloved warrior of ʾIlu:
The Message (viii 32–47)
Message of Mighty Baʿlu
word of the mightiest of heroes:
I have built my house [of silver],
my [palace of gold].
…
Môtu’s Reply to Baʿlu (viii 48 – CTA 5 i 8)
[Message of Môtu, son of ʾIlu,
word of the beloved warrior of ʾIlu:
My throat is the throat of the lionaaa in the wasteland,
and the gullet203 of the ‘snorter’ in the sea;
And it craves the pool (as do) the wild bulls,
(craves) springs as (do) the herds of deer; ccc
And, indeed, indeed,
my throat consumes heaps (of things),206
yes indeed, I eat by double handfuls;
And my seven portions are in a bowl,
and they mix (into my) cup a (whole) river.
So invite me, Baʿlu, along with my brothers,
have me over, Haddu, along with my kin,
And eat bread with my brothers,
drink wine with my kin!
Have you forgotten, Baʿlu, that I can pierce you through?
… ]
Colophon (left edge)
[The scribe: ʾIlīmilku, ṯāʿi]yu–official of
Niqmaddu, king of Ugarit.
CTA 5210
When you smite Lôtan, the fleeing serpent,
finish off the twisting serpent,
the close–coiling one with seven heads,
The heavens wither and go slack
like the folds (?) of your tunic.
(Then) I, with groans, am devoured,
(like) a piece of dung I die.
(So) you must (for your part) descend into the throat of Môtu, son of ʾIlu,
into the watery depths fff of the beloved warrior of ʾIlu.
Môtu’s Message is Delivered to Baʿlu (i 9–?)
The gods do not hesitate;
they head off
for Baʿlu on the heights of Ṣapānu.
Gupanu-wa-ʾUgāru report:
Message of Môtu, son of ʾIlu,
word of the beloved warrior of ʾIlu:
My throat is the throat of the lion in the wasteland,
and the gullet of the ‘snorter’ in the sea;
And it craves the pool (as do) the wild bulls,
(craves) springs as (do) the herds of deer;
And, indeed, indeed,
my throat consumes heaps (of things),
yes indeed, I eat by double handfuls;
And my seven portions are in a bowl,
and they mix (into my) cup a (whole) river.
So invite me, Baʿlu, along with my brothers,
have me over, Haddu, along with my kin,
And eat bread with my brothers,
drink wine with my kin!
Have you forgotten, Baʿlu, that I can pierce you through?
[…]
When you smite [Lôtan, the] fleeing [serpent],
finish off [the twisting serpent],
the close–coiling one [with seven heads],
[The heavens] wither [and go slack
like the folds (?) of] your [tunic].
[ (Then) I, with groans, am devoured,
(like) a piece of dung I die.
(So) you must (for your part) descend the throat of Môtu, son of ʾIlu,
into the watery depths of the beloved warrior of ʾIlu].
…
Baʿlu Reflects on Môtu’s Threat (ii?–7)
[He puts (one) lip to the] earth, (the other) lip to the heavens,
[he X] (his) tongue to the stars. ggg
Baʿlu will enter his insides,
(will go down) his mouth like a roasted olive,
(like) the produce of the earth and the fruit of (its) trees.
Mighty Baʿlu will fear him,
Cloud–Rider will be frightened of him.
Baʿlu’s Message, Very Brief, in Reply to Môtu’s Threats (ii 8–13)
Go say to Môtu, son of ʾIlu,
Repeat to the beloved warrior of ʾIlu:
Message of Mighty Baʿlu,
word of the mightiest of heroes:
Salutations, Môtu, son of ʾIlu!
Your servant am I, and forever (will be)!
Be off and do not tarry, O gods.
The Message is Delivered (ii 13–20)
So they head off
toward Môtu, son of ʾIlu,
to his city Hamray,
to Mukku where <his> throne is established,
to Ḫôḫu, the land of his own possession.
They raise their voices and say aloud:
Message of Mighty Baʿlu,
word of the mightiest of heroes:
Salutations, Môtu, son of ʾIlu!
Your servant am I, and forever (will be)!
Môtu’s Reaction (ii 20–?)
(This) brings joy to Môtu, son of ʾIlu:
[He raises] his voice and cries out:
[Baʿlu] will indeed invite me [along with my brothers],
Haddu will have me over [along with my kinsmen].
…
Invitation and Preparations for the Feast in Honor of Môtu (iii)
A Banquet (iv)
Baʿlu Receives the Final Invitation (v?–17)
…
and I will put him/it down amongst the gods of
the underworld.
As for you, take your clouds, your wind,
your watering devices, your rain,
With you your seven lads,
your eight officers,
With you Pidray, daughter of ʾAru,
with you Ṭallay, daughter of Rabbu.228
Head off
for the mountains of my covert;
Lift up (one) mountain on (your) hands,
(one) wooded hill on (your) palms.
Then go down into the place of seclusion (within)
the earth,
you must be counted among those who go down into the earth,
And the gods will know that you are dead. jjj
Baʿlu Assures Himself a Form of Afterlife (v 17–?)
Hearing (this), Baʿlu loves a heifer in the pasture
land,
a cow in a field on the edge of death’s realm.
Seventy–seven (times) he lies with her,
eighty–eight she bears him up.
She conceives and bears a male,
Mighty Baʿlu clothes him.
…
ʾIlu Learns of Baʿlu’s Death (vi?–25)
[Off they head
to ʾIlu at the source of the double river,
midst the upspringings of the deeps.
They enter ʾIlu’s dwelling],
go into [the home of the King, father of] Šunama.
[They raise their voices and say aloud]:
We have done the rounds of [ (some part) of the
earth],
unto (its) well–watered portions.
We arrived at the best part of the earth, the pasture
land,
at the most beautiful field on the edge of death’s realm. lll
We arrived at where Baʿlu was fallen to the earth:
Dead was Mighty Baʿlu,
perished the Prince, master of the earth.
Thereupon the Gracious One, the kindly god,
descends from the throne, sits on the footstool,
(descends) from the footstool, sits on the earth.
He pours dirt of mourning on his head,
dust of humiliation on his cranium,
for clothing, he is covered with a girded garment.
With a stone he scratches incisions on (his) skin,
with a razor he cuts cheeks and chin.
He harrows his upper arms,
plows (his) chest like a garden
harrows (his) back like a (garden in a) valley.
He raises his voice and cries aloud:
Baʿlu is dead, what (is to become of) the people,
the Son of Dagan (is dead), what (is to become of) the hordes (of the earth)?
After Baʿlu, I also shall descend into the earth.
ʿAnatu Finds and Buries Baʿlu (vi 25 – CTA 6 i 32)
ʿAnatu also goes and searches
every mountain to the heart of the earth,
every hill to the heart of the fields.
She arrives at the best part of [the earth], the pasture land,
at the most beautiful field on [the edge of] death’s realm.
She [arrives] at where Baʿlu was fallen [to the] earth;
[for clothing], she is covered with a girded garment.
CTA 6241
(Belonging) to (the) Baʿlu (cycle).
With a stone she scratches incisions on (her) skin,
[with a razor] she cuts cheeks and chin.
[She harrows] her upper arms,
plows (her) chest like a garden
harrows (her) back like a (garden in a) valley.
Baʿlu is dead, what (is to become of) the people,
the Son of Dagan (is dead), what (is to become of) the hordes (of the earth)?
After Baʿlu, we also shall descend into the earth,
with him Šapšu, luminary of the gods, shall descend.
She drinks (her) weeping until she is sated,
(she drinks her) tears like wine.
(Then) she calls aloud to Šapšu, luminary of the gods:
Bear for me, please, Mighty Baʿlu.
Šapšu, luminary of the gods, agrees:
She lifts Mighty Baʿlu up onto ʿAnatu’s shoulder.
Once (Šapšu) has placed him (on her shoulder), she takes him up
to the heights of Ṣapānu.
(There) she weeps for him and buries him,
places him down amongst the gods of the underworld.
She slaughters seventy wild bulls
as a GMN (for) Mighty Baʿlu;
She slaughters seventy domesticated bovids
[as] a GMN (for) Mighty Baʿlu;
[She] slaughters seventy domesticated caprovids
[as a] GMN (for) Mighty Baʿlu;
[She] slaughters seventy deer
[as a GMN] (for) Mighty Baʿlu;
[She slaughters] seventy wild goats
[as a GMN] (for) Mighty Baʿlu;
[She slaughters seventy] asses
[as a] GMN (for) Mighty Baʿlu.
…
ʿAnat Informs ʾIlu of Baʿlu’s Death (i 32–43)
Then off she goes
to [ʾIlu] at the source of the double river,
midst the upspringings of the deeps.
She enters ʾIlu’s dwelling,
goes into the home of the King, father of Šunama;
At ʾIlu’s feet she bows and falls,
does homage and honors him.
She raises her voice and says aloud:
So now let ʾAṯiratu and her sons rejoice,
(let) the goddess (rejoice) and the host of her kin;
For Mighty Baʿlu is dead,
perished the Prince, master of the earth.
ʾIlu and ʾAṯiratu Confer on a Replacement for Baʿlu (i 43–55)
ʾIlu cries aloud
to the Great Lady, ʾAṯiratu of the Sea:
Listen, O Great Lady, ʾAṯiratu of the Sea:
Give one of your sons that I might make him king.
The Great Lady, ʾAṯiratu of the Sea, replies:
Must we not appoint someone as king (who) knows (how) sap flows?
The Gracious One, the kindly god answers:
One of meager strength cannot run (with Baʿlu),
with Baʿlu cannot handle the lance,
(for when he vies) with the son of Dagan, he falls prostrate.
The Great Lady, ʾAṯiratu of the Sea, replies:
Must we not, then, appoint terrible ʿAṯtaru as king?
Let terrible ʿAṯtaru be king!
‘Terrible’ ʿAṯtaru Attempts, Unsuccessfully, to Fill Baʿlu’s Rôle (i 56–?)
Thereupon terrible ʿAṯtaru
climbs the heights of Ṣapānu,
sits on Mighty Baʿlu’s seat.
(But) his feet do not reach the footstool,
his head does not reach the top (of the seat).
(To this) terrible ʿAṯtaru responds:
I will not be king on the heights of Ṣapānu.
Terrible ʿAṯtaru (then) descends,
he descends from the seat of Might Baʿlu,
And rules over the earth, god of it all,
[…] will draw in jars,
[…] will draw in jugs.
…
ʿAnatu Punishes Môtu (ii 4–37)
A day, two days pass
and [Maid ʿAnatu] interrogates him.
Like the heart of a cow for her calf,
like the heart of a ewe for her lamb,
so is the heart of ʿAnatu after Baʿlu.
She seizes Môtu by the hem of his clothes,
grasps [him] by the extremity of his garment.
She raises her voice and shouts aloud:
You, Môtu, give me my brother!
Môtu, son of ʾIlu, replies:
(You don’t know) what you’re asking, Girl ʿAnatu.
I went searching
every mountain to the heart of the earth,
every hill to the heart of the fields.
There were no humans for me to swallow,
no hordes of the earth to swallow.
I arrived at the best part of the earth, the pasture land,
at the most beautiful field on the edge of death’s realm.
(There) I met up with Mighty Baʿlu,
I took him as (I would) a lamb in my mouth,
he was destroyed as a kid (would be) in my crushing jaws.
(Now) Šapšu, luminary of the gods, glows hot,
the heavens are powerless under the control of Môtu, the son of ʾIlu.
A day, two days pass,
the days become months,
(and) Maid ʿAnatu interrogates him.
Like the heart of a cow for her calf,
like the heart of a ewe for her lamb,
so is the heart of ʿAnatu after Baʿlu.
She seizes Môtu, son of ʾIlu:
with a knife she splits him,
with a winnowing–fork she winnows him,
with fire she burns him,
with grindstones she pulverizes him,
in the field she sows him;
The birds eat his flesh,
the fowl finish off his body parts,
flesh (–eaters) grow fat on flesh.
======
In a Dream ʾIlu Understands that Baʿlu has Revived (iii 1–21)
[… that Mighty Baʿlu is dead,]
that the Prince, [master of the earth], has perished.
And if Mighty [Baʿlu] is alive,
if the Prince, lord of [the earth], exists (again),
In a dream of the Gracious One, the kindly god,
in a vision of the Creator of creatures,
The heavens will rain down oil,
the wadis will run with honey.
Then I’ll know that Mighty Baʿlu is alive,
that the Prince, master of the earth, exists (again).
In a dream of the Gracious One, the kindly god,
in a vision of the Creator of creatures,
The heavens rain down oil,
the wadis run with honey.
(This) brings joy to the Gracious One, the kindly
god,
he taps his feet on the footstool
his brow unfurrows and he laughs.
He raises his voice and cries out:
(Now) I can again get some rest,
my innermost being can get some rest,
For Mighty Baʿlu is alive,
the Prince, master of the earth, exists (again).
ʾIlu Seeks Confirmation of the Dream (iii 22 – iv)
ʾIlu calls aloud to Girl ʿAnatu:
Listen, Girl ʿAnatu:
(Go) say to Šapšu, luminary of the gods:
Dried up are the furrows of the fields, O Šapšu,
dried up are the furrows of ʾIlu’s fields,
Baʿlu is neglecting the furrows of the plow-land.
Where is Mighty Baʿlu?
Where is the Prince, master of the earth?
(So) Girl ʿAnat leaves,
she heads off
for Šapšu, luminary of the gods.
She raises her voice and says aloud:
Message of the Bull, your father ʾIlu,
word of the Gracious One, your sire:
Dried up are the furrows of the fields, O Šapšu,
dried up are the furrows of ʾIlu’s fields,
Baʿlu is neglecting the furrows of the plowland.
Where is Mighty Baʿlu?
Where is the Prince, master of the earth?
Šapšu, luminary of the gods, replies:
Pour sparkling wine in (your) tent,
Put garlands on your kinfolk,
For I will go looking for Baʿlu.
Girl ʿAnatu replies:
Wherever you go, O Šapšu,
wherever you go, ʾIlu will protect [you],
[…] will protect you.
…
Baʿlu Gets Revenge, Resumes His Kingly Estate (v 1–6)
Baʿlu seizes the sons of ʾAṯiratu,
numerous (as they are) he smites them with the sword,
crushers (as they are) he smites them with the mace;
Môtu’s scorching heat he tramples to the ground.
Baʿlu [takes his place] on his royal throne,
[on (his) resting–place], on the seat of his dominion.
Môtu Seeks His Own Form of Revenge (v 7–?)
The days turn into months,
the months into years.
In the seventh year,
Môtu, son of ʾIlu, [comes]
to Mighty Baʿlu.
He raises his voice and says aloud:
On account of you, Baʿlu, I experienced abasement,
on account of you I experienced winnowing with <the winnowing–fork,
on account of you I experienced splitting with> the knife,
on account of you I experienced burning in fire,
on account of you [I experienced] pulverization with grindstones,
on account of [you] I experienced [being strained] with a sieve,
on account of you I experienced [scattering] in the fields,
on account of you I experienced sowing in the sea.
(So) give one of your brothers (for) I would devour (him)
and the anger with which I (now) am sick would go away.
If one of your brothers […]
then […].
Now I eat [men],
I finish off the hordes [of the earth].
…
The Final Battle (vi 10–22)
Here now Baʿlu has given (me) my own brothers
to devour,
my own siblings to finish off.
He returned to Baʿlu on the heights of Ṣapānu,
raised his voice and said aloud:
You have given (me), Baʿlu, my own brothers to
devour,
my own siblings to finish off.
They eye each other like finished (warriors),
Môtu is strong, Baʿlu is strong;
They butt each other like wild bulls,
Môtu is strong, Baʿlu is strong;
They bite each other like snakes,
Môtu is strong, Baʿlu is strong;
They trample each other like running (animals),
Môtu falls, Baʿlu falls.
Šapšu Intervenes (vi 22–29)
On high Šapšu cries out to Môtu:
Please listen, O Môtu, son of ʾIlu:
How can you fight with Mighty Baʿlu?
How can the Bull, your father ʾIlu, continue to listen to you (if you do)?
Surely he would pull up the foundations of your seat,
overturn the throne of your kingship,
break the staff of your rulership.
Môtu Capitulates (vi 30–?)
Môtu, son of ʾIlu, is afraid,
frightened, the beloved warrior of ʾIlu.
Môtu arises at (the sound of) her voice,
he [lifts up his voice and says aloud]:
Let them place Baʿlu [on] his royal [throne],
on [ (his) resting–place, on the seat of] his dominion.
…
Praise to Šapšu and her Allies (vi 42–52)
Also, please eat the bread of oblation,
drink the wine that is presented (to you).
Šapšu, you rule the Rapaʾūma,
Šapšu, you rule the divine ones;
In your entourage are the gods,
even the (divinized) dead.
In your entourage is Kôṯaru your companion,
and Ḫasīsu whom you know well.
In the sea are ʾArišu (Demander) and the dragon;
may Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu drive (them) out!
may Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu drive (them) away!
==========
Colophon (vi 53–57)
The scribe: ʾIlīmilku the Šubbanite, disciple of ʾAttānu-purulini, (who is) chief of the priests (and) chief of the cultic herdsmen; ṯāʿiyu–official of Niqmaddu, (who is) king of Ugarit, lord (of) YRGB, (and) master (of) ṮRMN.
REFERENCES
Astour 1980; Attridge and Oden 1981; Baumgarten 1981; Bordreuil 1991; Bordreuil and Pardee 1991; 1993; forthcoming; Brooke 1979; Caquot 1992; Caquot, Sznycer, and Herdner 1974; Cassuto 1938; Caubet and Poplin 1987; Clifford 1972; Dietrich and Loretz 1978b; 1986c; Dijkstra and de Moor 1975; Driver 1956; Durand 1993; Freilich 1992; Gachet 1992; Gibson 1978; Ginsberg 1941; 1950; Gordon 1947; Greenstein 1977; Healey 1983b; Held 1973; Herdner 1963; Korpel 1990; Lambert 1985; Margalit 1983; Meier 1986; de Moor 1968; 1971; 1987; Niehr 1994; Nougayrol 1968; 1970; del Olmo Lete 1981; Pardee 1980; 1984; 1987; 1988a; 1988b; 1988c; 1989–90; 1991; forthcoming; Pope 1955; 1977b; Ribichini and Xella 1984; Rummel 1978; Sanmartín 1978; Schaeffer 1949; 1954; Smith 1986; 1994; Van Soldt 1989; 1991; Vaughn 1993; Virolleaud 1931; 1932; 1934a; 1934b; 1935; 1938; 1944–45; Walls 1992; Watson 1980; 1989b; Williams–Forte 1983; Yon 1989; 1990; 1991.
DAWN AND DUSK (1.87)
(The Birth of the Gracious and Beautiful Gods)
Dennis Pardee
The text recounting the birth of the double deity Šaḥru-wa-Šalimu, “Dawn and Dusk,” constitutes one of the most important of the texts discovered during the early years of excavations at Ras Shamra and which stand outside the principal cycles of texts (Baʿlu, Kirta, and ʾAqhatu). The text is inscribed on a single tablet, discovered during the second campaign in the building located between the two principal temples and which is known as the “High Priest’s Library” (editio princeps by Virolleaud 1933). The tablet is relatively well preserved and the text on it appears to have been complete, for not only are both the upper and lower edges extant, with neither archival notation on the former nor colophon on the latter, but there is space for at least one more line of writing at the bottom of the verso which the scribe has left blank.
The text has two peculiar features: (1) it deals with the origin and characteristics of what must be judged, on the basis of other Ugaritic texts, to be a pair of relatively minor deities; (2) the text itself contains rubric indications which have been interpreted as reflecting a cultic usage of the text.
As regards the first point, there are two indications as to why the birth of Šaḥru-wa-Šalimu may be thought to have occupied a particular position in Ugaritic thought. The first is visible in the mythological narrative of this text, viz., that the mothers of these deities are not described with terms characteristic of divinity, indeed are termed simply ʾaṯtm, “two women.” We seem to be dealing, therefore, with the motif of divine engenderment well known in classical literature, in this case the impregnation by the god ʾIlu of two human females, who each give birth to one of the deities who make up the pair Šaḥru-wa-Šalimu. Though a text identifiable as a theogony has not appeared yet among the Ugaritic literature, the fact that the goddess ʾAṯiratu bears the title of qnyt ʾilm, “progenitress of the gods,” has led most scholars to see her as the divine mother of ʾIlu’s central family, known in the ritual texts as bn ʾil, dr bn ʾil, and mpḫrt bn ʾil, “the sons of ʾIlu,” “the circle of the sons of ʾIlu,” and “the assembly of the sons of ʾIlu.” In one of these texts ʾIlu bears the title of ʾab bn ʾil, “the father of the sons of ʾIlu,” and in the mythological texts he bears the name of bny bnwt, “the producer (lit. builder) of progeny (lit. that which is built).” Into this picture may be introduced the facts that the deity Šalimu is the last deity named in the two “pantheon” texts known at Ugarit up to the present (on RS 1.017 and RS 24.643, see Pardee forthcoming) and that he is the last deity named in a sacrificial sequence repeated in three texts (RS 1.001:8, RS 1.003:17, RS 18.056:18 — see Pardee forthcoming on RS 1.001:8). The identification of this deity with one member of the binomial Šaḥru-wa-Šalimu appears plausible, though not certain, and his place in the pantheon may be interpreted as indicating that he was seen as the deity who most appropriately brought up the rear of the procession of the gods. In the light of the present myth, the rank of the deity is perhaps best interpreted as reflecting his birth, not by ʾAṯiratu and perhaps, to the extent that time was a factor in divine genealogy, after ʾIlu’s children by ʾAṯiratu. The double deity Šaḥru-wa-Šalimu also appears in a rather enigmatic ritual text of which the central part is a list of divine names (RS 24.271:11, see Virolleaud 1968:583–586). On these matters see the bibliographical data and discussions in Pardee 1989–90:456–458 and forthcoming.
These details concerning Šaḥru-wa-Šalimu may be of use in identifying the “gracious gods” (ʾilm nʿmm), mentioned in lines 1, 23, and 67 (in line 60 the text has ʾilmy nʿmm), who are sometimes identified with Šaḥru-wa-Šalimu, sometimes not. The sequence of the presentation requires either that they be seen as born after Šaḥru-wa-Šalimu or that they be identified with Šaḥru-wa-Šalimu whose birth would have been twice reported. The former solution appears narratologically the more plausible, but it requires that the description of the “gracious gods” as having “(one) lip to the earth, (the other) lip to the heavens” (lines 61–62) be applied to an unknown group of divinities, whereas that description and the following lines seem quite graphically to describe the gods of dawn and dusk. If Šaḥru-wa-Šalimu are indeed somehow identifiable with the single deity Šalimu, it is in any case unlikely that the “gracious gods” are to be identified with the rest of the Ugaritic deities or even with the majority of ʾIlu’s offspring, as many scholars have thought, for there is simply no reason to believe that the circumstances described by this poem correspond to the circumstances of the birth of the children of ʾAṯiratu. It appears preferable, therefore, to see the double birth narrative simply as a narrative device expressing the birth by two women of two deities. This position is defended below in the note to lines 55–64. According to that interpretation, the text has as its central focus from beginning to end the deities Dawn and Dusk, who are, in this text, ascribed significant powers of blessing.
The second peculiarity, in comparison with the other mythological texts, is the organization of this text. The first twenty–nine lines are divided by horizontal lines across the tablet into nine sections, some of which seem to contain snippets of mythological texts, bearing motifs both familiar and unfamiliar, while others contain indications of liturgical activity, though the identity of the participants is not clear. Then the rest of the text, lines 30–76, relates, without a break by horizontal lines, the story of the birth of Šaḥru-wa-Šalimu, the “gracious gods” (lines 30–64), their characteristics and banishment to the desert (lines 64–67), and a final section dealing with the discovery by the “gracious gods” of agricultural products (lines 67–76). Beyond the basic problems of interpretation of the first nine sections, the matter of their relationship to the principal myth has exercised the minds of students of this text, with some seeing the short mythological texts as mere incipits, unrelated to the longer story, while others have attempted to discern an overarching story line. The intermingling of liturgical rubrics and mythological elements seems to favor the latter interpretation, for although one could without difficulty picture a tablet inscribed with a series of incipits, it is more difficult to posit the existence of an aleatory liturgical text from the ancient Near East. The motifs of agricultural plenty of the first sections may provide the pattern for the myth, according to which Šaḥru-wa-Šalimu are born voracious devourers of birds and fish who must be put in a situation where they will desire to live, like the other gods, from the produce of the fields (cf. Caquot, Sznycer and Herdner 1974:363–64). To the extent that this myth is reflected in the ritual prescriptions written in prose, one may assume the domestication of Šaḥru-wa-Šalimu to have succeeded, for, as mentioned above, Šalimu appears in those texts, and his diet is no different from that of any of the other deities. These facts regarding the divine diet may be interpreted as reflecting general Ugaritic sacrificial practice, where the deities normally receive the products of agricultural activity rather than of fishing and fowling; this sacrificial practice would in turn reflect alimentary patterns in the ancient Levant (cf. Houston 1993). One could posit a view of the universe in which the alimentary world reflected by the sacrificial system is viewed as an improvement, because of the organized distribution of agricultural products that it implies, over a more primitive system, more dependent on nature’s whims, presented here as one in which the voracity of certain spoiled children of ʾIlu could provoke shortages and famine.
Is it possible to identify the ceremony at which this liturgical series would have been played out? There is one specific feature and one of a more general nature that may serve to fix this ceremony in the cultic cycle. The specific feature is the mention of “dwellings of the gods, eight …” in line 19 (mṯbt ʾilm ṯmn), for that phrase finds its closest parallel in a ritual text (RS 1.003:50–51, see text 1.95 below) where “dwellings (of the gods)” are distributed four by four on a roof, probably that of the temple of ʾIlu, on the first day of an unnamed month that follows the month named Raʾšu Yêni, “the beginning of the wine.” Though most scholars have seen the text as referring to only one month and have assumed Raʾšu Yêni to have been the first month of the year, the structure of RS 1.003 and a host of other arguments indicate that Raʾšu Yêni was in all likelihood the last month of the year, the lunar month preceding the fall equinox, during which the grape harvest and vinification would have begun, and that the ceremony indicated in RS 1.003:50–55 is that of the first month of the new year3. As in the Hebrew system, where the feast of “booths” (sukkōt) began on the fifteenth day of the first month of the year (according to the calendar beginning in fall), the Ugaritic harvest festival would have taken place after the August–September harvest, though RS 1.003 indicates that at Ugarit it began on the first day of the new month/year, rather than the fifteenth. The more general feature of this text to which reference was made above is the mention of “wine” in lines 6 and 75 and the several allusions to viticultural activities, particularly appropriate for a harvest festival.
Because of the liturgical aspects of this text and the conception of Šaḥru-wa-Šalimu recounted in it, this text has been interpreted as reflecting the sacred marriage rite, the hieros gamos, at Ugarit (e.g., de Moor 1987:117–118). Though this interpretation appears plausible, to the extent that the first sections are interpreted liturgically and linked to the following myth, it must be stressed that this text provides no details whatever regarding the liturgical aspects of the hieros gamos itself, i.e., to what extent the various rôles were acted out and the specifics of the rite. On the hieros gamos in Mesopotamia, for which a greater number of details are known, see Cooper (1993).
Invitation (lines 1–7)
I would call on a the gr[acious] gods
[…] and beautiful,
sons of […],
Who have provided a city on high,
[…] in the steppe–land, on the barren hilltops b […]
[…] on their heads,
and […].
Eat the food, yes do,
Drink the foaming wine, yes do.10
Give well–being to the king,11
give well–being to the queen,
to those who enter and to those who stand guard.
Mutu–wa-Šarru Joins the Feast (lines 8–11)
Mutu-wa-Šarru takes a seat,
in his hand the staff of bereavement,15
in his hand the staff of widowhood.
The pruners of the vine prune it, g
the binders of the vine bind it,
they cause (it) to fall to the–field–of–a–man h like a vine.
Recitation Rubric (line 12)
Seven times they are to pronounce (these verses)18 next to the ʿD–room and those who enter respond.20
The Field of the Gods and its Produce (lines 13–15)
The field is the field of the gods,
the field of ʾAṯiratu and Raḥm<ay>. k
Over the fire, seven times the sweet–voiced
youths (chant):
Coriander in milk,26
mint in butter.m
And over the jar seven times again (they chant):
The dǵ[ṯ–sacrifices have been sacri]ficed.
The Hunt (lines 16–18)
Off goes Raḥmay and hunts,
[…] she/they gird;
The goodly youth […]
And those who enter pro[nounce] the name […].
Huts for the Gods (lines 19–20)
Dwellings of the gods: eight […]32
Seven times […].
Holy Array (lines 21–22)
Purple, carnelian (–colored) […]
scarlet; singersp […].
Second Invitation (lines 23–27)
I would call on the gracious gods,
[who delimit the day, sons of] a (single) day,35
who suck the nipples of the breasts of ʾAṯiratu.
[…] Šapšu, who cares for their feebleness
[ (with) X] and (with) grapes.
Give well–being to those who enter and to those who stand guard,
to those who form a procession with sacrifices of prosperity.
The Field of the Gods Repeated (lines 28–29)
The field of the gods,
the field of ʾAṯiratu and Raḥm<ay>,
[…] s[i]ts/do[es ag]ain.
The Myth (lines 30–31)
[ʾIlu goes] to the seashore,
strides along the shores of the Great Deep.
ʾIlu Handpicks Two Women (lines 31–36)
ʾIlu [spies] two females presenting (him with) an
offering,
presenting (him with) an offering from the jar.
One gets down low,
the other up high.
One cries out: “Father, father,”
the other cries out: “Mother, mother.”
“May ʾIlu’s hand stretch out as long as the sea,48
(may) ʾIlu’s hand (stretch out as long) as the flowing waters;
Stretch out, (O) hand of ʾIlu, as long as the sea,
(stretch out, O) hand of ʾIlu, (as long) as the flowing waters.”
ʾIlu takes the two females presenting an offering,
presenting an offering from the jar;
he takes (them), estab<lish>es (them) in his house.t
ʾIlu Tries His Hand at Shooting Birds (lines 37–39)
ʾIlu (first) lowers his staff,
(then) ʾIlu grasps his rod in his right hand.
He raises (it), casts (it) into the sky,
casts (it at) a bird in the sky.
He plucks (the bird), puts (it) on the coals,
(then) ʾIlu sets about enticing the women.52
ʾIlu Comes Up With a Handy Test of the Women’s Maturity (lines 39–49)
“If,” (says he,) “the two women cry out:
‘O man, man,
you who prepare your staff,
who grasp your rod in your right hand,
you roast a bird on the fire,
roast (it) on the coals,’
(then) the two women (will become) the wives of ʾIlu,
ʾIlu’s wives forever.
But if the two women cry out:
‘O father, father,
you who prepare your staff,
who grasp your rod in your right hand,
you roast a bird on the fire,
roast (it) on the coals,’
(then) the two daughters (will become) the daughters of ʾIlu,
ʾIlu’s daughters forever.”
The two women do (in fact) cry out:
“O man, man,
you who prepare your staff,
who grasp your rod in your right hand,
you roast a bird on the fire,
roast (it) on the coals.”
(Then) the two women (become) the wives [of ʾIlu],
ʾIlu’s wives forever.
The Birth of Šaḥru-wa-Šalimu (lines 49–54)
He bends down, kisses their lips,
their lips are sweet,
sweet as pomegranates.
When he kisses, there is conception,
when he embraces, there is pregnancy.
The two (women) squat and give birth
to Šaḥru-wa-Šalimu.
Word is brought to ʾIlu:
“The two wives of ʾIlu have given birth.”
“What have they born?”
“The two boys Šaḥru-wa-Šalimu.”
“Take up, prepare (a gift) for great Šapšu
and for the immut[able] stars.”
The Second Birth Narrative (lines 55–64)
He bends down, kisses their lips,
their lips are sweet.
When he kisses, there is conception,
[when] he embraces, there is pregnancy.
He sits down, he counts,
to five for the [bulge to appear],
[to t]en, the completed double.
The two (women) squat and give birth,
they give birth to the gracious [gods],
who delimit the day, sons of a (single) day,
who suck the nipples of the breasts.
Word is brought to ʾIlu:
“The two wives of ʾIlu have given birth.”
“What have they born?”
“The gracious gods,
who delimit the day, sons of a (single) day,
who suck the nipples of the breasts of the lady.
(One) lip to the earth,
(the other) lip to the heavens,
Into their mouths enter
the birds of the heavens
and the fish in the sea.
When they stand, delimitation to <deli>mitation,
they prepare (food for themselves) on right and left,
into their mouth (it goes) but never are they satisfied.” z
ʾIlu Temporarily Banishes Mothers and Sons (lines 64–67)
“O women whom I have wedded,
O sons whom I have begot,
Take up (your belongings), prepare (yourselves a place)
in the holy steppe-land; aa
There you must dwell as aliens
among the stones and trees,
For seven full years,
eight revolutions of time.”
The Gracious Gods Learn of Agriculture (lines 67–76)
The gracious gods arrive at the field,
(while) hunting along the fringes of the steppe-land.
The guardian of the sown land meets them
and they call out to the guardian of the sown land:
“O guard, guard, open up!”
and he opens up.
He makes an opening (in the fence) dd for them
and they enter.
“If [there is X–]bread,
then give (it to us) that we might eat;
If there is [X–wine,
then] give (it to us) that we might drink.”
The guardian of the sown land answers them:
[“There is bread that has …]
There is wine that has arrived in/from […].”
[…] he approaches,
he serves a luggu–measure of his wine
[…]
And his companion fills with wine […]
REFERENCES
Amadasi Guzzo 1990:15–25; Bordreuil and Pardee 1982:121–128; 1991:139–172; Caquot 1971:168–170; 1979:Cols. 1367–1371; Cooper 1993:81–96; Cunchillos 1976; Cutler and Macdonald 1982:33–50; Day 1986:385–408; Dietrich and Loretz 1988; Dietrich, Loretz and Sanmartín 1976; Driver 1956; Foley 1987:61–74; Gaster 1946:49–76; Gibson 1978; Ginsberg 1935:45–72; 1945:3–10; Gordon 1977:5–133; Gray 1965; Herdner 1963; Hettema 1989–90:77–94; Houston 1993; del Olmo Lete 1981; de Moor 1987; Pardee 1976:215–322; 1987:366–471; 1988a; 1989–90:390–513; 1993a:207–218; forthcoming; Pope 1979:701–708; Ratner and Zuckerman 1986:15–60; Sanmartín 1992:95–103; Saracino 1982:191–199; Schaeffer 1954:14–67; Stager 1982:111–121; Tropper 1990; Tsumura 1978:387–395; Virolleaud 1933:128–151; 1968: 545–595; Watson 1994:3–8; Wyatt 1987:375–389; 1992a:149–153; 1992b:425–427; Xella 1973; Yon 1991: 273–344.
2. PRAYERS
UGARITIC PRAYER FOR A CITY UNDER SIEGE (1.88)
(RS 24.266)
Dennis Pardee
The sole clear example of a cultic prayer in the Ugaritic language is embedded in a ritual text, discovered in 1961 among a large quantity of ritually oriented texts (see the omen texts 1.90 and 1.92 below). The complete text is translated here to enable the reader to perceive the cultic context. The principal point of interest as regards the document as a whole is the degree to which the rituals prescribed here are accomplished in honor of various manifestations of Baʿlu, to whom the prayer also is addressed. From a literary perspective, it is to be noted that the text of the ritual itself is in prose, as are most Ugaritic ritual texts, while that of the prayer is in poetic form.
The Ritual of the Month of ʾIbaʿlatu (lines 1–?)
In the month of ʾIbaʿlatu, on the seventh day:a a sheep for Baʿlu-RʿKT3 […] and (in) the temple of Baʿlu-ʾUgārīta […]. At sunsetc the king is clear (of further cultic obligations). d On the seventeenth, the king washes himselff clean. g A cow (in) the sanctuary of ʾIlu, a cow for the Baʿlu(-deities), a cow for ǴLM, two ewes and a cow for ǴLMTM; at the house of the ṯāʿiyu–priest does one sacrifice (the preceding beasts). Next you9 shall illumine the ʿD–room of the temple of Baʿlu-ʾUgārīta: a lamb and a city–dove; (these belong) to (the category) of the ṯaʿu–sacrifice. On the eighteenth of ʾIbaʿlatu, a bull for the MDGL11 of Baʿlu-ʾUgārīta. A flame–sacrifice and a presentation-sacrifice13 the king must offer (at) the temple of ʾIlu: a “neck” for ʾI[…] a “neck” for Baʿlu[…] and a donkey for […] … 16
Another Festival, Perhaps of the Month of Ḫiyyāru (lines 18´–25´)
[…] On the fourth: birds.18 On the fifth:o birds and a liver and a sheep (as) a burnt–offering for Baʿlu-ʾUgārīta in the temple. On the seventh: you shall bring the purifiers near. At sundown, the king is clear (of further cultic obligations). Behold the oil of well–being of Baʿlu, libation-offering (for the benefit) of the kings, of the first quality. r
The prayer (lines 26´–36´)
When a strong (foe) attackst your gate,
a warrior your walls, v
You shall lift your eyes to Baʿlu (and say):
O Baʿlu, if you drive the strong one from our
gate,
the warrior from our walls,
A bull, y O Baʿlu, we shall sanctify,
a vow, (O) Baʿlu, we shall fulfill;aa
a firstborn, bb (O) Baʿlu, we shall sanctify,
a ḥtp–offering, (O) Baʿlu, we shall fulfill,
a ʿšrt–feast, (O) Baʿlu, we shall offer;
To the sanctuary, (O) Baʿlu, we shall ascend,
th (at) path, dd (O) Baʿlu, we shall take.
And Baʿlu will hear [your] prayer:
He will drive the strong (foe) from your gate,
[the warrior] from your walls.
REFERENCES
De Jong and van Soldt 1987–88; Herdner 1972:693–697; 1978; Margalit 1981; 1986; Miller 1988; de Moor 1983; 1987; del Olmo Lete 1989:27–35; 1992; Pardee 1987:366–471; 1988a; 1993a:207–218; forthcoming; Saracino 1983a:304–306; 1983b:263–269; Tarragon 1989:125–238; Xella 1978:127–136; 1981.
THE PRAYER OF NABONIDUS (4QPRNAB) (1.89)
Baruch A. Levine, Anne Robertson
This Aramaic text from Qumran, Cave 4, which speaks of Nabonidus, the last king of Babylon, was first published by J. T. Milik (1956), who assembled it from separate fragments of a single manuscript. These fragments were later realigned by F. M. Cross (1984), who dated the inscription paleographically to ca. 75–50 BCE. Many large gaps remain, some of which can be restored on the basis of parallel statements occurring elsewhere in the inscription, itself. Other restorations can only be conjectured, mostly on the basis of thematic links with the Book of Daniel. Interpretations of 4QPrNab have, as a consequence, varied greatly, although its overall thrust is quite clear.
While in Tema, a major oasis in northern Arabia, Nabonidus was stricken for seven years with an ailment inflicted on him by God, so that he became comparable with the beasts. When he prayed to God, his sin was forgiven. By way of recapitulation, the inscription explains in greater detail how Nabonidus was cured. It was a Jewish diviner of the exilic community who revealed to Nabonidus the cause of his ailment. He is quoted as saying that it was because the Babylonian king had continued to worship false gods, of silver and gold, thinking that they were true gods. The diviner instructed Nabonidus to give honor and praise to the true God, at which point his suffering ended.
In the biblical Book of Daniel, experiences similar to those associated with Nabonidus in this inscription are attributed to Nebuchadnezzar II, and in lesser degree to Belshazzar, Nabonidus’ son, who ruled as co–regent for three years while his father was in Arabia. Quite possibly, the traditions of the Book of Daniel originated as tales about Nabonidus, whose fame was celebrated in Babylonian sources. His sojourn in Tema is recorded in the so–called Nabonidus Chronicle (ANET 305–307), and the Harran Inscriptions of Nabonidus (ANET 562–563) state that he had recourse to diviners, there identified as spokesmen of Sin, the chief god worshipped at Harran.
Biblical writers understandably focused on Nebuchadnezzar because he was, after all, the one who had destroyed Jerusalem and exiled masses of Judaeans to Babylonia. It is noteworthy, however, that at Qumran, other Jewish authors identified Nabonidus as the subject of legend, and credited him with ultimately acknowledging the God of Israel. See Meyer 1962; Sack 1992; and Garcia Martinez 1992:116–136.
Superscription: The Afflictions of Nabonidus (1–2a)
(Concerning) words of p[ra]yer of Nabonidus2, king of [Ba]bylon, [the Great] King, [when he was stricken] with a pernicious inflammation3 by the decree of G[o]d5, in [the municipality of] Teman. b
A First–Person Account of Nabonidus’ Affliction and Healing (2b–4a)
I was stricken for seven years, and ever since [that time] I became comparable [with the beasts.8 Then I prayed before God]d, and (as for) my offense – he forgave it.
Recapitulation: It was a Jewish Diviner who Revealed to Nabonidus How He Could Be Healed (4b–8)
A diviner, e who was himself a Jew fro[m among the exilic community of Judea], f provided an interpretation, g and wrote (instructions) to render honor and greatness to the name of G[od. And so did he write]: “You were stricken with a pernicious inflammation [by the decree of God in the municipality of Teman, but ] you continued for seven years to pray [before] gods of silver and gold, [bronze and iron], wood and stone (and) clay, because [you were of the opin]ion that t[hey were] (true) divinities.”13
REFERENCES
Beaulieu 1989; Beyer 1994; Brockelmann 1966; Collins 1992; Cross 1984; Garcia Martinez 1992; Levy 1963; R. Meyer 1962; Milik 1956; Sack 1992; Sokoloff 1990.
3. DIVINATION
UGARITIC BIRTH OMENS (1.90)
(RS 24.247 + RS 24.302)
Dennis Pardee
Recorded observations of the natural world in the Levantine and Mesopotamian areas of the ancient Near East had two primary foci, medical and divinatory. The two areas were probably thought to be equally empirical. In the case of a symptom, one applied a given remedy or remedies and the complaint was supposed to go away. Other natural phenomena were thought to be followed by events in man’s world. Various forms of divination are well attested in the classical world and a lengthy introduction is therefore not necessary here. Many of these types of divination are known to have already been practiced in Mesopotamia, for which documentation exists from the beginning of the second millennium BCE on. A much less extensive documentation exists for the west, though forms of classical Mesopotamian divinatory texts have been discovered there, particularly at Emar (Tell Meskene on the Euphrates) and, in Hittite versions, at Boğazköy. Ugaritic texts exist for divination by misformed animal births (RS 24.247+), by misformed human births (RS 24.302), by lunar phenomena (RIH 78/14 [text 1.91]), by extispicy (RS 24.312 … [texts 1.92]), and, perhaps, by dreams (RS 18.041 [text 1.93]). In the medical category, only hippiatric texts are attested to date (text 1.106). Though one suspects that these texts had a Mesopotamian origin, there is remarkably little evidence of direct Mesopotamian influence. For example, there are very few loanwords from Akkadian in the Ugaritic of these texts, and there is no instance of a Ugaritic text having been translated directly from a known Akkadian original. It appears, therefore, that there was a long native tradition of this type of text and that it may be necessary to rethink the role of the “Amorites” in the elaboration and spread of “science” in the Fertile Crescent.
Both birth–omen texts were discovered in the same archive, that of “le prêtre aux modèles de poumon et de foies,” in the trench dubbed “ville sud,” as were the lung and liver models translated in 1.92.
Because the omens are brief, consisting of one or two sentences per observation, the lines inscribed on the tablet by the scribe to set one omen off from another are indicated here and subheadings are omitted in the translation. RS 24.247+ was badly damaged in antiquity and has been incompletely pieced together from many fragments (editio princeps by Herdner 1978:44–60). There is no set order of procedure from one anomaly to another and it is therefore usually impossible to reconstruct the beginning of the line when it is damaged. The interpretation of a given anomaly is not uniform in the various traditions, and it is usually difficult to reconstruct a missing prognostication. One can, however, observe one generality: the left side is negatively polarized, the right side positively. So a missing right organ or limb will generally be interpreted negatively, while the same abnormality on the left will have a positive interpretation. This is clearest in lines 35´–38´, mirror–image omens involving missing right and left ears. For parallels with the Mesopotamian tradition, termed šumma izbu after the first words of a typical entry (“if [there is] a misformed birth …”), see particularly Xella and Capomacchia 1979, Pardee 1986, and Dietrich and Loretz 1990a.
A Text for Divining by Misformed Births of Sheep and Goats (RS 24.247+)
1) As for the ewes of the flock, [when3 t]hey give birth, a (if it is a) stone, many6 will fall in the land.7
_________________
2) (If it is a piece of) wood, behold […] in place of the offspring/birth, its cattle will […].
3) (If the foetus) is smooth, (without) h[air?], there will be […] in the land.
_________________
4) And (if) th[ere is no …], the land will perish.
_________________
5) […], there will be famine in the land.
_________________
6) […] and (= nor) nostrils, the land […]; ditto.11
_________________
7) [And] (if) there is no […], the king will seize the lan[d of his enemy and] the weapon of the king will lay it (the land) low.f
_________________
8) […] […] cattle […]
_________________
9) And (if) it has no [left] thigh, the king will […] his enemy.
_________________
10) And (if) there is no lower left leg, the king [will …] his enemy.
_________________
11) And (if there is) a horn of flesh [in] its lef[t te]mple, […].
_________________
12) (If) it has no spleen […] […]; di[tto;]
13) the king will not obtain offspring.16
_________________
14) [And] (if) it has no testicles, the (seed–)gra[inh …]
_________________
15) And (if) the middle part of its [left?] foreleg is missing, […] will destroy the cattlek of […].
_________________
16) […], the enemy will destroy the cattle of the land.
17) […], the mighty archers will seize the enemy of the king.
_________________
18) […]perish/destroy; ditto.
_________________
19) […]famine, hard times will disappear.
20) […]will become strong/strengthen him.
21) […]
_________________
22) […]
_________________
23) […]
…
24´) […] […]
_________________
25´) […] […]
_________________
26´) And (if) it has no right thigh […]
_________________
27´) And (if) there is no tendon?20 in [its?] K[…]
_________________
28´) And (if) it has no middle part of the [right] foreleg […]
29´) will not obtain offspring.
_________________
30´) And (if) [it has] no nostrils […]
_________________
31´) And (if) it has no tongue […]
_________________
32´) (If) its lower lip (is) like […]
_________________
33´) (If) its face (is) that of a ʾIRN, […] will shorten
34´) the days of the (= our) lord; behold, the catt[le? …]
_________________
35´) And (if) [it] has no right ear, [the enemy will] devastate the land
36´) [… and will] consume it.
_________________
37´) And (if) [it] has no left ear, the king [will] devastate the land of [his] enemy
38´) and will consume it.
_________________
39´) And (if) its (rear?) legs (are) short, the (= our) lord will confront the ḫurādu–troops and
40´) Rašap will finish off the posterity.23
41´) And (if) its nose (is) like the “nose” of a bird, the gods will destroy p the land
42´) […] and will fly (away?).
_________________
43´) […] to/on its head, the (seed–)grain of that king
44´) […]
_________________
45´) […] its [–]DR protrudes, the Sun will abase27 that land.
_________________
46´) […], the king will lay low the hand (= power)q of the ḫurādu–troops.
_________________
47´) […] its penis, the weapon of the king will be raised
48´) […] his hand.
_________________
49´) […] in place of its eyes and its eyes (are) in its forehead,
50´) [the enemy will] tread the land under.
_________________
51´) [And (if)] its [––]B protrudes from its mouth, the enemy will devour the land.
_________________
52´) And (if) it has [no] feet, the ḫurādu–troops will turn against the king.
_________________
53´) And if its tongue is […], the land will be scattered.
_________________
54´) (If) its […]ḤR (is/are) in its temples, the king will make peace with his enemy.
_________________
55´) And (if) it has n[o] [–]KB, the (seed–)grain of that land will be consumed.
_________________
56´) And (if) […], the gods will destroy that land.
_________________
57´) And (if) its eyes are [in] (its) forehead, the king will become more powerful than his ḫupṯu–troops.
_________________
58´) And (if) it has ḤR and [–]R, the king will destroy his enemy.
_________________
59´) And (if) it has no left (fore?)leg, the land of the enemy will perish.
A Text for Divining by Misformed Human Births (RS 24.302)
1´) If [a woman] g[ives birth …]
2´) the l[and …]
_________________
3´) If [a woman] gives birth[…]
4´) will become more powerful than[…]
======================
5´) If a wo[man] gives birth[…]
6´) the land of the enemy will [be destroyed.]
7´) If a wo[man] gives birth[…]
8´) help will be […]
_________________
9´) If a wo[man] gives birth[…]
10´) the weapon of[…]
11´) will not ob[tain offspring?…]
_________________
12´) BH[…]
13´) will? […]
_________________
14´) I[f a woman gives birth …]
REFERENCES
Dietrich and Loretz 1986a; 1990a; 1990b:89–109; Dietrich, Loretz and Sanmartín 1975a; Dion 1980; Herdner 1978; Hoftijzer 1982; del Olmo Lete 1992; Pardee 1986; 1987; 1989; forthcoming; Xella 1981; Xella and Capomacchia 1979.
UGARITIC LUNAR OMENS (1.91)
(RIH 78/14)
Dennis Pardee
Like the texts for divination by misformed births, the Ugaritic collection of lunar omens corresponds directly to a Mesopotamian series, in this case Sin, the name of the Mesopotamian lunar deity. This text, which was discovered in 1978 at the site of Ras Ibn Hani, only a few kilometers from Ras Shamra, is badly damaged, only the upper portion having been preserved and that incompletely (editio princeps by Bordreuil and Caquot 1980:352–353). Like the tiny fragment attesting to the existence of the divinatory genre dealing with misformed human births, this incomplete text is precious, attesting to the transmission in Ugaritic of omens based on lunar phenomena. The text is too poorly preserved to permit a structural analysis, the only certain feature being that it begins with reference to the new moon and ends with a reference to the thirtieth day, that is, a full month as defined by consecutive sightings of the new moon. There seems, however, to be another reference to the new moon towards the end of the text (line 9´), and in line 11´ some have seen the Mesopotamian month name Kislimu. It appears unlikely, therefore, that the overall organization of the text consisted of a simple progression through the phases of the lunar month. As with the divination texts in the preceding section, no text from the Mesopotamian tradition can be identified as the original from which this one would have been translated, not even one of those from Emar (in eastern Syria) dating roughly to the same period as this one.
1) If at the time of the new moon2 […], there will be poverty.3
_________________
2) If the moon, when it rises,4 is red, d
3) there will be prosperity e [during] (that month).
_________________
4) [If] the moon, when it rises, is yellow-green f
5) [ ], the cattle will perish.
6) [If the moon, when it ri]ses, is red,
7) [ ] assembly.
…
8´) [ will] perish.
_________________
9´) [ ] newness of the moon, the personnel10
10´) [ ] and will be put down.
_________________
11´) [ ]YM YH YRḪ KSLM, the kings will keep an eye on each other.13
12´) [If] three times the moon is seen in the moon/month (and) thereafter
13´) […]LT, there will be rain. h
14´) [If] a star falls on the thirtieth day,16 the king […].
REFERENCES
Bordreuil and Caquot 1980; Dietrich and Loretz 1986a; 1990a; 1990b; Dietrich, Loretz and Sanmartín 1976; del Olmo Lete 1992; Pardee 1987; 1993b; forthcoming.
UGARITIC EXTISPICY (1.92)
(RS 24.312, RS 24.323, RS 24.326, RS 24.327, RS 24.654, RS 24.277)
Dennis Pardee
The practice of extispicy (the examination of the organs of a sacrificed animal for purposes of divination) is attested in the ancient Near East by collections of omens of the types encountered above (“if such–and–such a feature is present, such–and–such an event will occur”) and by inscribed models of the organs themselves. Only the latter category is presently attested at Ugarit. There are several liver models and one lung model. The inscriptions can be either simple marks on the clay intended to replicate features present on the observed organ, or they can be such marks accompanied by actual texts describing the circumstances of the consultation. The leading authority on these objects, J.–W. Meyer, has deciphered the marks so as to be able to determine whether the response to the inquiry was positive or negative (Meyer 1987, 1990). The Ugaritic texts constitute a peculiarity in that other known inscriptions on organ models deal with the science of examination and interpretation, rather than with the circumstances of a particular consultation.
All the Ugaritic organ models come from a single archive, that found in the so–called “Maison du prêtre aux modèles de poumon et de foies,” located to the south of the acropolis at Ras Shamra in the area dubbed “ville sud” by the excavator (Schaeffer 1978). The priest’s name is unknown.
The texts on the liver models are set down on the flat surface of the model, arranged either as a single line winding around the curve of the model (RS 24.312) or as a series of lines beginning from one side (all others). The lung model has three large flat sides, each having roughly the shape of a flatiron, and the inscriptions are arranged in sections delimited by lines inscribed in the clay, either curved, forming small rough circles, or straight, running from one end to the other of the model. The delimiting lines sometimes cross each other, permitting a decision regarding the order of writing the inscriptions, but this is not always the case and, moreover, there is no way of determining the order in which the three sides were inscribed. The order in which the inscriptions are presented is, therefore, somewhat arbitrary, decided by what appears to the modern reader to be a logical sequence; I have for the most part followed the order proposed in the editio princeps (Dietrich and Loretz 1969).
A Consultation on the Buying of a Servant
(RS 24.312)
(This liver model is) for ʾAgapṯarri2 when he was to buy a the boy of the Alashian.5
A Consultation at the Time of Sacrifice (RS 24.323)
Sacrificial (consultation) of BṢY, so[n]/daught[er] of ṬRY, for the ʿAṯtaru who is in ʿAṯtartu.
A Consultation at the Beginning of a Month
(RS 24.326)
(This is) the liver (pertaining to the consultation on behalf) of YPT, son of YKNʿ, when this month was about to begin.
A Consultation Regarding Military Service (?)
(RS 24.327)
[…] of Yabnimilku with regard to ḫpṯ.
A Consultation in Uncertain Circumstances
(RS 24.654)
(This is) the liver (model) for Ḥ[…] when […] (on) a/the day of […].
A Lung Model Bearing a Series of Inscriptions
(RS 24.277)
(Side 1, Inscription I)
Sacrifices of the entire month.3 (First) a (n object) vow (ed) and a sacrifice.
(Side 1, Inscription II)
Those (= the sacrifices) of (= offered by) NʾAT and gifts of (= for) Ṯarrummanni and a sacrifice of (= offered by) all; all (will eat this) sacrifice (until) it is gone,d in accordance with the writings.
(Side 1, Inscription III)
Those (= the sacrifices) of (= offered by) NʾAT and Qurwanu; (these will be done) like the (preceding) sacrifice.
(Side 1, Inscription IV)
[…] personnel.
(Side 2, Inscription V)
A ram […]
(Side 2, Inscription VI)
YPY[…]
(Side 2, Inscription VII)
A bull e of (= for) Dagan […] in the house, according to the wr[itings], and to/surely22 the sacrifice […].
(Side 3, Inscription VIII)
If the city is about to be seized, if the man (= warrior) attacks, f the (male) personnel (of the city)
(Side 3, Inscription IX)
[…] the women, they will take a goat […]
(Side 3, Inscription X)
(in) (or: with regard to) the house, the (male) personnel will take a goath and see afar.28
REFERENCES
Dietrich and Loretz 1969; 1978a; 1986a; 1990a; Loretz 1985; Meyer 1987; 1990; del Olmo Lete 1992; Pardee 1988a; 1989–90; forthcoming; Schaeffer 1978; Xella 1981.
UGARITIC DREAM OMENS (1.93)
(RS 18.041)
Dennis Pardee
This text, discovered in 1954 in the palace, is in a very poor state of preservation and its interpretation is uncertain (editio princeps by Virolleaud 1965, text 158). The presence of the word “dreams” in the first line and the variety of terms that have been preserved in the following lines make it at least plausible that we have here a rough catalogue of items that may be seen in dreams along with an interpretation by item or by category. The interpretation of dreams as a category of divination is well known from Mesopotamia (Oppenheim 1956). As with previous divinatory texts translated here, there is no Akkadian text that corresponds directly to this one, nor is there a single text that makes the attempt, as this one seems to do, to furnish a brief catalogue of the world as seen in dreams.
1) Document of dreams.1 A year–oldc bull d and […]
2) two years; the mature bull:3 the word (= interpretation?) […]
3) The bull: the young bull of Baʿlu […]
4) the heifer (that?) will be slaughtered […]
5) one year.
6) The horse of ʿAṯtartu and the horse of Š[…]
7) and if the horse falls over: i the word (= interpretation?) […]
8) that arrives (where) the man (is) […].
_________________
9) And the donkey […] donkey […]
10) and ditto […]
11) and BN […]
12) to the man, the donkey […]
13) and that to the harness […]
_________________
14) And the flock: the goatk […]
15) the kid, offspring of […]
16) the lamb […]
17) son(s) of Baʿlu […]
…
18´) […] the servant–girl […]
19´) […]
20´) The nʾit-tool […]
21´) then the nʾit-tool […]
22´) spe[ak], your servant […]
_________________
23´) The worker (or: the work) (with) the ḫrmṯt-tool l […]
_________________
24´) And the cups (of) ŠQYM/T […]
25´) the sons of the cup–bearers […]
26´) KBDT the personnel […]
_________________
27´) The sandals […]
_________________
28´) In a dream […]
29´) face of […]
_________________
30´) The men (personnel) (and) the women […]
31´) barley […]
_________________
32´–34´) […]
REFERENCES
Bordreuil 1990; Healey 1983a; Huehnergard 1987; Leclant 1960; Oppenheim 1956:179–373; Pardee 1987; 1988b; 1989–90; forthcoming; Virolleaud 1965.
4. INCANTATIONS AND RITUALS
UGARITIC LITURGY AGAINST VENOMOUS REPTILES (1.94)
(RS 24.244)
Dennis Pardee
Three Ugaritic texts dealing specifically with the problem of venomous serpents have been discovered: this one, a very fragmentary text found along with this one (RS 24.251+), and RS 1992.2014 (translated below as text 1.100). The first two texts (editio princeps by Virolleaud 1968:564–580) were found in the archive of the “prêtre aux modèles de poumon et de foies” (on this building, see introduction to 1.92) and by their liturgical form reflect that person’s interest in ritual (see on RS 24.266 [1.88]), whereas the third is an incantation in the narrower sense of the word.
This text consists of three major sections, of which the first is divided into twelve subsections. In these subsections the equine heroine, seeking a vanquisher of venomous serpents, sends a message to twelve deities. The first eleven, all important members of the Ugaritic pantheon, react with typical snake–charming gestures but go no further. Only the twelfth, Ḥôrānu, responds effectively and, in the second (or thirteenth) section, performs a ritual that renders the serpent venom powerless. The final section presents the negotiations between Ḥôrānu and the mare in view of marriage.
The text itself does not constitute a pure incantation, and in that respect is unlike RS 1992.2014 (text 1.100). Each of the pleas by the mare to a deity does contain, however, the recitation (mnt) of a brief incantation expressed in terms proper to a snake charmer (mlḫš). The quasi–narrative form of the text, its mythological features, and the dialogical form of the last paragraphs have led to the proposal that this text may constitute one of the few relatively clear examples in Ugaritic literature of a ritual in mythological form, that is, a ritual against venomous reptiles of which this text provides the libretto (Pardee 1978a:108; 1988a:225).
The Mare Seeks an Ally Capable of Vanquishing Venomous Serpents (lines 1–60)
The mother of the stallion, the mare,
the daughter of the spring, the daughter of the stone,
the daughter of the heavens and the abyss, b
Calls to her mother, Šapšu: c
Message to ʾIlu (lines 2–7)
Mother Šapšu, take a message
to ʾIlu at the headwaters of the two rivers,
at the confluence of the deeps: e
My incantation for serpent bite,
for the scaly serpent’s poison:7
From it, O charmer, destroy,
from it cast out the venom.
Then he binds the serpent,
feeds the scaly <serpent>,
draws up a chair and sits.
Message to Baʿlu (lines 8–13)
She again calls to her mother Šapšu:
Mother Šapšu, take a message
to Baʿlu on the heights of Ṣapānu:
My incantation for serpent bite,
for the scaly serpent’s poison:
From it, O charmer, destroy,
from it cast out the venom.
Then he binds the serpent,
feeds the scaly serpent,
draws up a chair and sits.
Message to Dagan (lines 14–18)
She again calls to her mother Šapšu:
Mother Šapšu, take a message
to Dagan in Tuttul:
My incantation for serpent bite,
for the scaly serpent’s poison:
From it, O charmer, destroy,
from it cast out the venom.
Then he binds the serpent,
feeds the scaly serpent,
draws up a chair and sits.
Message to ʿAnatu-wa-ʿAṯtartu (lines 19–24)
She again calls to her mother Šapšu:
Mother Šapšu, take a message
to ʿAnatu-wa-ʿAṯtartu in ʾInbubu:
My incantation for serpent bite,
for the scaly serpent’s poison:
From it, O charmer, destroy,
from it cast out the venom.
Then he binds the serpent,
feeds the scaly serpent,
draws up a chair and sits.
Message to Yariḫu (lines 25–29)
She again calls to her mother Šapšu:
Mother Šapšu, take a message
to Yariḫu in Larugatu:
My incantation for serpent bite,
for the scaly serpent’s poison:
From it, O charmer, destroy,
from it cast out the venom.
Then he binds the serpent,
feeds the scaly serpent,
draws up a chair and sits.
Message to Rašap (lines 30–34)
She again calls to her mother Šapšu:
Mother Šapšu, take a message
to Rašap in Bibitta:
My incantation for serpent bite,
for the scaly serpent’s poison:
From it, O charmer, destroy,
from it cast out the venom.
Then he binds the serpent,
feeds the scaly serpent,
draws up a chair and sits.
Message to ʿAṯtartu (lines 34a–e)
<She again calls to her mother Šapšu:
Mother Šapšu, take a message
to ʿAṯtartu in Mari:
My incantation for serpent bite,
for the scaly serpent’s poison:
From it, O charmer, destroy,
from it cast out the venom.
Then he binds the serpent,
feeds the scaly serpent,
draws up a chair and sits.>
Message to Ẓiẓẓu-wa-Kamāṯu (lines 35–39)
She again calls to her mother Šapšu:
Mother Šapšu, take a message
to Ẓiẓẓu-wa-Kamāṯu in Ḥurriyatu:
My incantation for serpent bite,
for the scaly serpent’s poison:
From it, O charmer, destroy,
from it cast out the venom.
Then he binds the serpent,
feeds the scaly serpent,
draws up a chair and sits.
Message to Milku (lines 40–44)
She again calls to her mother Šapšu:
Mother Šapšu, take a message
to Milku in ʿAṯtartu: h
My incantation for serpent bite,
for the scaly serpent’s poison:
From it, O charmer, destroy,
from it cast out the venom.
Then he binds the serpent,
feeds the scaly serpent,
draws up a chair and sits.
Message to Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu (lines 45–50)
She again calls to her mother Šapšu:
Mother Šapšu, take a message
to Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu in Crete:
My incantation for serpent bite,
for the scaly serpent’s poison:
From it, O charmer, destroy,
from it cast out the venom.
Then he binds the serpent,
feeds the scaly serpent,
draws up a chair and sits.
Message to Šaḥru-wa-Šalimu (lines 51–56)
She again calls to her mother Šapšu:
Mother Šapšu, take a message
to Šaḥru-wa-Šalimu in the heavens:
My incantation for serpent bite,
for the scaly serpent’s poison:
From it, O charmer, destroy,
from it cast out the venom.
Then he binds the serpent,
feeds the scaly serpent,
draws up a chair and sits.
Message to Ḥôrānu (lines 57–60)
She again calls to her mother Šapšu:
Mother Šapšu, take a message
to Ḥôrānu in Maṣūdu:
My incantation for serpent bite,
for the scaly serpent’s poison:
From it, O charmer, destroy,
from it cast out the venom.
Ḥôrānu Takes Care of the Problem (lines 61–69)
She (the mare) turns (her) face to Ḥôrānu,
for she is to be bereaved of her offspring.
He (Ḥôrānu) returns to the city of the east,
he heads
for Great Araššiḫu,
for well–watered Araššiḫu.
He casts a tamarisk k (from) among the trees,
the “tree of death” (from) among the bushes.m
With the tamarisk he expels it (the venom),
with the fruit stalk of a date palm he banishes it,
with the succulent part of a reed he makes it pass on,
with the “carrier” he carries it away.
Then Ḥôrānu goes to his house,
arrives at his court.
The venom is weak as though (in) a stream,
is dispersed as though (in) a canal. o
Ḥôrānu Weds the Mare (lines 70–76)
Behind her the house of incantation,
behind her the house she has shut,
behind her she has set the bronze (bolt).
Ḥôrānu’s Plea for Entry (lines 71–72)
Open the house of incantation,
open the house that I may enter,
the palace that I may come in.
The Mare’s Requirements (lines 73–74)
Give as <my bride–price> serpents,
give poisonous lizards as my bride–price,
adders as my wife–price. q
Ḥôrānu Assents (lines 75–76)
I hereby give serpents as your bride–price,
adders as your wife–price.
REFERENCES
Astour 1968; Barré 1978; Bordreuil 1983; 1990; Caquot 1969; 1989; Caquot, Sznycer and Herdner 1974; Delcor 1981; Dietrich and Loretz 1980; 1986b; 1988; Gaster 1975; Heider 1985; Huehnergard 1987; Levine and Tarragon 1988; Margulis 1970; de Moor 1987; Nougayrol 1968; del Olmo Lete 1992; Pardee 1978a; 1978b; 1979; 1987; 1988a; 1988b; 1989–90; 1995; forthcoming; Tsevat 1979; Virolleaud 1961; 1962a; 1962b; 1968; Xella 1981.
UGARITIC RITES FOR THE VINTAGE (KTU 1.41//1.87) (1.95)
Baruch A. Levine, Jean-Michel de Tarragon, Anne Robertson
This is the most extensive Ugaritic temple ritual on record. It describes the annual celebrations of the grape harvest at the Temple of Baal in Ugarit over the period of one month, in the autumn of the year. It highlights the New Moon, and other key days, especially the thirteenth and fourteenth of the month.
Two copies have been found, a fact which, in itself, indicates the canonical status of the ritual. In preparing the translation, KTU 1.41:1–49 has been used as the base text, allowing for restorations from KTU 1.87: 1–53, a copy apparently made from KTU 1.41. KTU 1.41:50–55, which is appended to the principal ritual of KTU 1.41, will also be translated since it probably relates to the vintage festival.
KTU 1.41 was discovered during the campaign of 1929 in the residence of the High Priest, located not far from the Baal Temple, whereas KTU 1.87 was discovered during the campaign of 1954 in the Royal Palace of Ugarit. It was undoubtedly stored there for use by the king of Ugarit, who presided over the celebrations (Bordreuil and Pardee 1989:6, fig. 2.)
In listing sacrificial animals, the following abbreviations will be used: s.m. = small, male; s.f. = small, female; l.m. =large, male; l.f.= large, female.
Introduction: The Annual Time of the Vintage Rites (1a)
In the month of Rišyn.
Dates of the Month for Celebration and Purification (1b–3)
On the New Moon — cutting of the grape cluster.3
To Il c — 4 šlmm offerings. d
On the thirteenth — The pure king bathes himself.
The Main Event: The “First of the Tribute” Celebration (4–6a)
On the fourteenth: First of the tribute.
And 2 s.m. for the Lady of the temples,8
Birds for the staff of gods,
And 1 s.m. Elš, the favored,
1 s.m., the gods.
The King Proclaims the Day (6b–12a)
The king is seated, the pure one.
And he clapped [his hands], e
And proclaimed the day.
Then [the king] enters [the tem]ple
[with] a present of [a cu]p and a chal[ice].
2 s.f.and a domestic pigeon he prepares for Anat,g
and 1 l.m., 1 s.m. for Il.
And at the aperture: [a libation] he pours.
Accompanying Burnt Offerings and Šlmm (12b–17a)
1 l.f. — the gods,
ṮKMN-w-ŠNM — 1 s.f.
Rashap — 1 s.f. — [all] as the burnt offering.
And as šlmm offerings:
2 s.f. — the god,
1 l.m. and 1 s.m. — the gods,
1 l.f. — the gods.
Baal — 1 s.m.
Athirat — 1 s.m.
ṮKMN-w-ŠNM — 1 s.m.,
Anat — 1 s.m.,
Rashap — 1 s.m.
Circle of Il and Council of Baal — 1 l.f.
Shalim — 1 l.f.
The King Performs Rites at Midday (17b–24a)
And at midday, inside the convening room15 of the gods and the lords — goblets and cups, thirty, fil[led].
And the entrance offering that he brings to the royal chapel — a sacred meal l of myrrh oil, of blended oil; a gift of bee-honey, a domestic pigeon and two cages.
And at the ledge (?) — fourteen jugs of wine, ½ measure of flour.
At the steps of the altars of the chapel of the goddess — birds.
Two Series of Accompanying Burnt Offerings and Šlmm (24b–36a)
For Ṣaphan – 1 s.m.,
For “the Young Woman” — 1 s.m.,
and for [x] — [y],
[x] for Yariḫ,
1 l.f. for Nikkal,
1 l.f. for the Lady of the Temples,
birds for the staff of the gods,
1 l.f. — the gods,
1 s.f. — Shapash,
1 l.f. — Rashap, [all] as the burnt offering.
And as šlmm offerings — same (as listed).
2 s.f. — the gods,
1 l.f. — the gods,
1 s.f. — ṮKMN-w-ŠNM,
1 s.f. — the Lady of the Temples,
2 s.f. — at the spring, [all] as burnt offerings.
And as šlmm offerings — same (as listed).
The Regular Public Sacrifice: the Tamid of Ugarit (33b–38a)
1 l.f. for Baal Ṣaphan,
1 s.f. for Ṣaphan,
1 l.f. for Baal of Ugarit,
1 s.m. for Ilib,
[x] [for Athi]rat,
And birds for [the staff of the gods].
Thirty times, and at the chapel of the Lady of the Exalted Temples, and atop the altars.
Special Rites for the First Quarter of the Month (38b–48a)
On the fifth, chapel of Il:
A shekel of silver, the kubādu ceremony, and a sacred meal.
[x] for Athirat,
birds for the staff of the gods.
At the [pedestal] of the Baal altar:
1 l.f. for Baal,
1 s.f. for Ṣaphan,
And 1 s.f. for Baal of Ugarit, twenty-two times.
Elš, the favored — 1 s.m.
ŠMN, the favored, — 1 l.f.
And the pure king responds with a recitation.
On the sixth:
2 [s.m.] — ŠMN, the favored.
In addition to it: 1 l.f.
With a recitation he responds, the pure king.
On the seventh:
a) At the descent of the sun, the day is profane.
At the setting of the sun, the king is profane.
b) The rising of Shapash, and the circuit of Yamm;
The setting of Shapash, and the circuit of ‘the King.’
An Addendum for the New Moon (48b–49)
On the New Moon:
2 s.m. for Athtart.
Rites Performed by the King on the Roof of the Baal Temple (50–55)
When the king offers sacrifice to PRGL.ṢQRN24 on the roof,
there are f[our] and four stands bearing azmr fruit [placed] on it.
1 s.m., as the burnt offering,
1 l.m, 1 s.m., as the šlmm offering.
Seven times, each, on it (=the roof).
The king offers a reci[tation].
a) At the setting of the sun, the king is profane.
b) The setting of Shapash, and the circuit of ‘the King.’
[He wears] beautiful garments;
He claps [his hands].
They are brought back into the temple,
And when he is there, he raises his ha[nds] to heaven.q
REFERENCES
Text: KTU2 1.47; 1.87; Levine and de Tarragon 1993; de Moor 1987; del Olmo Lete 1987; 1989b:132; 1992:50–51, 73–87; de Tarragon 1980; 1989; Studies: Arnaud 1985–86; Blau and Greenfield 1970; Bordreuil and Pardee 1989; Caquot 1978; Fleming 1992; Huehnergard 1987; Levine 1963; 1989; Levine and Hallo 1967; Segert 1984; Sivan 1984.
UGARITIC INCANTATION AGAINST SORCERY (1.96)
(RIH 78/20)
Daniel Fleming
This Ugaritic magical text was found in 1978 not at Ras Shamra but at nearby Ras Ibn Hani, though it should be the same age. The extant tablet is neatly inscribed but broken from the 16th line at the left edge across to the 22nd at the right. In spite of the good condition of the first 15 lines, interpretation is hindered by previously unknown terms. Clear references to sorcery and expulsion indicate an incantation, but the text lacks immediate literary counterparts at Ugarit or elsewhere to illuminate its focus or perspective. The two sections of the legible contents are introduced by repeated injunctions to drive off attack (lines 1, 9).2
Part I (lines 1–8)
(Baal) shall drive off the young man’s accuser
— the affliction (?) of your staff, Rāpiʾu(?),
Baal, the affliction (?) of your staff. a
So, you shall depart before the voice of the incantation priest,
like smoke through a chimney,c
like a snake up a pillar,
like goats to a rock,
like lions to a lair. e
Staff, attention!
Draw near, staff!
May it harm your back
and waste your figure.
May you eat the bread of fasting (?),
may you drink without a cup (?), squeezing (?) (the water-skin),
in the high country,
in the lowlands,
in the darkness,
in the sanctuary.
Part II (lines 9–15)
Then (Horon) shall expel the sorcerer-accuser
— Horon, the magician,
and Ǵalmu, the familiar.
Go, you shall founder …,
you shall find your tongue stammering,
you shall be tightly bound (?).
The god clothed you,
the god has stripped you.
O man, the one with the staff(s) is indeed gone to the underworld;
O human, in weakness he is removed.
[Part III, lines 16 and following, increasingly damaged]
REFERENCES
Avishur 1981; Caquot 1978–79; 1984; Fleming 1991; Hillers 1983; Loretz and Xella 1982; de Moor 1980b; Smith 1984; Watson 1992.
ʾILU ON A TOOT (1.97)
(RS 24.258)
Dennis Pardee
Another text from the archive of the “prêtre aux modèles de poumon et de foies” presents the great god ʾIlu as getting himself gloriously drunk and in need of a pick–me–up. This text provides one of the clearest examples of what I have termed a “para–mythological text,” that is, one with mythological form or overtones but with a practical function (Pardee 1988a:265–266). The functional value of this text is evident not only from its content, that is, the passage from story to recipe, but also from its literary form, the myth being in poetic form while the recipe is in prose.
The structure of the first part of the myth follows ʾIlu’s progress from a feast to a drinking club to his private chambers. The drinking hall is the mrzḥ (Heb. marzēḥ), a term used to describe a place, the group that meets there, and the socio–religious institution. Comparing the layout of the Baalshamin sanctuary at Palmyra, where there was a banqueting hall (indicated by the word smkʾ, literally “bench [for reclining while eating]”), dedicated by the members of a mrzḥ, located apart from the main sanctuary, I have suggested that the principal stages of ʾIlu’s progress correspond to the principal sections of his palace. (1) The feast would have taken place in a part of the palace (b bth, b qrb hklh, “in his house, within his palace,” according to lines 1–2) corresponding to the position of the altar in a sanctuary and to a large room, relatively accessible to the public, in a palace such as the one at Ras Shamra; (2) the drinking club would have been located in a separate room or structure (b mrzḥh, “in his mrzḥ,” according to line 15) corresponding to the banqueting area in the Baalshamin sanctuary and to a more intimate banqueting hall in a royal palace (a particular such room has not yet been identified in the palace at Ras Shamra); (3) when ʾIlu went home (l bth, lḥẓrh, “to his house, to his courts,” according to lines 17–18) he would have gone to the private quarters of his palace, corresponding to the “holy of holies” in a sanctuary and to the living quarters of an earthly palace.
Once home ʾIlu meets a “pink elephant,” an apparition that has not yet been identified to everyone’s satisfaction (see below, note 14). Whatever the form and nature of this mysterious being, ʾIlu reacts by soiling himself and falling down in his refuse, a consequence of shock and inebriation. The goddesses ʿAnatu and ʿAṯtartu, who had already had a rôle to play at the feast, then go off, apparently to find the elements of a remedy for ʾIlu, though the text breaks off here. When the text resumes, on the verso of the tablet, the goddesses are again mentioned, apparently bringing relief to the father of the gods.
The last part of the text is marked off from what precedes by a horizontal line on the tablet and provides the prosaic cure for alcoholic collapse and hangover. In it is found the first known reference to “the hair of the dog” in the context of relief from the effects of alcohol.
Though some have seen in this text an example of ancient humor (bibliography in Pardee 1988a:41), it appears just as plausible to see here a serious attempt, even a scientific one, according to the science of the time, at dealing with the aftereffects of an evening spent on the benches of the mrzḥ. No single English term renders perfectly Northwest Semitic mrzḥ, but “drinking club” is chosen below because it expresses the common denominator of the textual sources, viz., the consumption of wine, as well as the social but non–cultic form and function of the institution. The written sources span at least two millennia, from Ugarit to early Rabbinic texts, and nearly always refer to wine, its production, its provision by one party for others, or its effects. In spite of the widely held view that the mrzḥ was a theater for the cult of the dead, not a single text known to date explicitly links the two phenomena and I doubt, therefore, that such a connection was ever more than incidental (see Pardee 1996 for a more detailed argument along these lines, with some recent bibliography). Though each mrzḥ seems to have had a deity as patron, there is no evidence that sacrifice, the sine qua non of old Northwest Semitic cultic activity, took place in the mrzḥ. Indeed, the silence regarding sacrifice in the textual sources is corroborated by the meagre archaeological data, which appear to show that the sacrificial cult and the mrzḥ were very different institutions. Regarding the temple of Baalshamin at Palmyra, see above, and for a description of the building at Ras Shamra for which the best claim as a mrzḥ may be made, the so–called “Temple aux Rhytons,” see Mallet 1987; Pardee 1996:280.
ʾIlu Throws a Banquet for the Gods (lines 1–13)
ʾIlu slaughters a game in his house,
prey c within his palace,
(and) invites the gods to partake.
The gods eat and drink,
they drink wi<ne> to satiety,
new wine f to drunkenness.
Yariḫu Plays the Dog (lines 4–13)
Yariḫu prepares his cup,
(then) like a dog he drags it
under the tables. h
Any god who knows him
gives him food;
But one who does not know him
strikes him with a stick
under the table.
He goes up to ʿAṯtartu-wa-ʿAnatu;
ʿAṯtartu gives him a nšb-cut (of meat),
ʿAnatu a shoulder–cut. j
The doorman of ʾIlu’s house yells at them,
so they don’t give a nšb-cut to a dog,
(so) they (don’t) give a shoulder–cut to a hound.
ʾIlu Moves on to the Marziḥu (lines 14–16)
He also yells at ʾIlu, his father;
(at which point) ʾIlu calls together his drinking [group],11
takes his seat in his drinking club. o
He drinks wine to satiety,
new wine to drunkenness.
ʾIlu Goes Home (lines 17–22)
(Then) ʾIlu heads for home,
arrives at his courts,
(But) Ṯukamuna-wa-Šunama
(have to) bear him along.13
ḤBY meets him,
he who has two horns and a tail,
(and) he bowls him over in his feces and his
urine.
ʾIlu falls t as though dead,
ʾIlu himself (falls) like those who descend into the earth. v
ʿAnatu-wa-ʿAṯtartu Seek a Remedy (lines 22–?)
ʿAnatu-wa-ʿAṯtartu go off on the hunt, w
[…]QDŠ[…]
…
ʿAṯtartu-wa-ʿAnatu Bring Back and Apply the Remedy (lines 26´–28´)
[…] ʿAṯtartu-wa-ʿAnatu […]
And in them she21 brings back […].
When she heals (him), he awakes. x
The Recipe (lines 29´–31´)
What is to be put on his forehead: hairs of a dog.24 And the head of the PQQ and its shoot
he is to drink (mixed) together with fresh olive oil.27
REFERENCES
Archi 1988; Caquot 1989; Cathcart and Watson 1980; Dietrich and Loretz 1981; 1988; 1993; Dietrich, Loretz and Sanmartín 1975b; Liverani 1969; Loewenstamm 1969; 1980; Loretz 1988; Mallet 1987; de Moor 1969; 1987; O’Connor 1986; del Olmo Lete 1992; Pardee 1987; 1988a; 1989–90; 1996; Pope 1972; Virolleaud 1962a:51–52; 1962b; 1968; Watson 1990b; Xella 1977.
A PUNIC SACRIFICIAL TARIFF (1.98)
Dennis Pardee
The “Marseilles Tariff” was discovered in 1844 in the city after which it is named, where it was brought from Carthage, though at what date is unknown. Other examples of tariff inscriptions, even more fragmentary than this one, have since been found at Carthage. The heading of the inscription seems to indicate that it was originally affixed to the temple of Baʿl-Ṣaphon in Carthage. It may be dated palaeographically to the late fourth or early third century BCE. Its purpose was to regulate distributions among priests and offerers of the items presented to the sanctuary as well as to set the fees that were attached to certain offerings.
The text was inscribed on a large block of stone, broken in two pieces when discovered (× cm and ×.5 cm). In addition to various small lacunae, the left side of the stone has entirely disappeared, at an angle from left to right, and thus no single line is intact, while the preserved portion of each line becomes progressively shorter as one reads from top to bottom.
The text is tightly structured, with the body of the document organized according to size/age categories of animals offered, the supplementary fees and portions accorded to the priests decreasing proportionately as the size of the animals listed decreases.
Comparison with the Book of Leviticus is interesting, but the differences turn out to be greater than the similarities. As regards the Carthaginian cult itself, this text is entirely devoted to its economic aspects, with no explicit statements regarding the theory, ideology, or motivations of these offerings. Comparison with the Ugaritic ritual texts also reveals great differences. Though some of the vocabulary and many of the animals offered as sacrifices are the same, the Ugaritic ritual texts deal primarily with the cultic calendar and with the allocation of sacrifices to various deities, passing over almost entirely the matter of distribution of offerings among the cultic officials and the offerers. Moreover, the concept of fee associated with certain offerings in the Punic text is absent from the Ugaritic texts, either because the texts are not primarily economic in nature and therefore do not mention such fees or because the practice of attaching monetary fees to sacrificial beasts had not yet arisen.
Prologue (lines 1–2)
Temple of Baʿl-Ṣaphon. (This) tariff2 of (priestly) revenues a (has been) set up (by) [the thirty men5 who are in charge of the revenues], in the time when Ḥilleṣbaʿl the mayor b was [head], c (he being) the son of Bodtinnit the son of Bod[ʾešmun, and (by) Ḥilleṣbaʿl] the mayor, (he being) the son of Bodʾešmun the son of Ḥilleṣbaʿl, and (by) [their] colleagues.
The Offering of a Mature Bovine (lines 3–4)
In (the case of) a mature bovine:10 (whether it be) a whole offering,11 or a presentation–offering,12 or a whole well–being offering, g the priests receive ten (shekels) of silver14 for each (animal offered); in (the case of) the whole offering they receive in addition to this fee [three–hundred (shekels)-weight of] meat;16 in (the case of) the presentation-offering (they receive) the lower part of the legs and the (leg–)joints,18 whereas the hide,19 the ribs, the feet and the rest of the flesh go to21 the one who brought the sacrifice. j
The Offering of an Immature Bovine or of a Mature Deer (lines 5–6)
In (the case of) the calf whose horns are naturally missing23 or in (the case of) the mature deer: l (whether it be) a whole offering, or a presentation-offering, or a whole well–being offering, the priests receive five (shekels) of silver [for each (animal offered); in (the case of) the whole offering they receive in addition] to this fee one hundred and fifty (shekels–)weight of meat; in (the case of) the presentation–offering (they receive) the lower part of the legs and the (leg–)joints, whereas the hide, the ribs, the feet [and the rest of the flesh go to the one who brought the sacrifice].
The Offering of a Mature Sheep or Goat (lines 7–8)
In (the case of) a ram or a goat:25 (whether it be) a whole offering, or a presentation–offering, or a whole well–being offering, the priests receive one shekel of silver (and) two zr26 for each (animal offered); in (the case of) the presentation–offering [they] receive [in addition to this fee the lower part of the legs] and the (leg–)joints, whereas the hide, the ribs, the feet and the rest of the flesh go to the one who brought the sacrifice.
The Offering of an Immature Sheep, Goat, or Deer (lines 9–10)
In (the case of) a lamb, or a kid,p or a young deer: (whether it be) a whole offering, or a presentation–offering, or a whole well–being offering, the priests receive three–quarters (of a shekel) of silver (and) [two] zr [for each (animal offered); in (the case of) the presentation–offering they receive in addition] to this fee the lower part of the legs
13:15, 19; 1 Sam 10:3; cf. Exod 23:19; 34:26; Deut 14:21 and the (leg–)joints, whereas the hide, the ribs, the feet and the rest of the flesh go to the one who brought [the sacrifice].
The Offering of a Bird (line 11)
[In (the case of) a] bird, (whether it be) a fowl or a free–flying bird:28 (whether it be) a whole well-being offering or an extispicy offering or a divinatory offering,29 the priests receive three–quarters (of a shekel) of silver (and) two zr for each (bird offered) and the flesh goes [to the one who brought the sacrifice].
Other Bird Offerings (line 12)
[ (In the case of) every (other)] bird (offering), (whether it be) holy first–bornt (birds), game- (bird) sacrifices,32 or (bird–)fat sacrifices, the priests receive ten ʾgrt34 for each […].
General Statement Regarding Presentation–Offerings (line 13)
[In] all (cases of) presentation offerings which (anyone) brings before the god, the priests shall receive the lower part of the legs and the (leg)-joints. And [in (the case of)] presentation–offerings […]
The Gift–Offering (line 14)
In [addition] to any (flour–oil) mixture, and in addition to milk,36 and in addition to fat,37 and in addition to any (other) sacrifice which a man may make as a gift-offering,38 [the priests] shall [receive …].
Offerings Made by a Poor Person (line 15)
In (the case of) any sacrifice made by a man who is poor as regards beasts39 or birds, the priests shall not receive anything [at all].
Offerings Made by a Group (lines 16–17)
Any citizens’ association, any clan,41 any drinking clubaa (devoted to) a god, or any (other group of) men who sacrifice […], these men [must pay] a fee in addition to each sacrifice in accordance with what is set down in the writsbb […].
Cases Not Covered in this Document (lines 18–19)
Any fee that is not set down in (the text on) this plaque shall be tendered according to the writs that [were written (by) the thirty men who are in charge of the revenues, in the time when Ḥilleṣbaʿl was head, (he being) the son of Bodtinn]it, and (by) Ḥilleṣbaʿl the son of Bodʾešmun, and (by) their colleagues.
The Oppressive Priest (line 20)
Any priest who requires a fee deviating from what is set down in (the text on) this plaque shall be fineddd […].
The Recalcitrant Offerer (line 21)
Any offerer who does not tender with [whatever he brings] the fee that [is set down in (the text on) this plaque …].
REFERENCES
Alexandropoulos 1992; Baker 1987; Bonnet 1992; van den Branden 1965; Cooke 1903; Creason 1992; Delcor 1983; 1990; KAI 69; Dussaud 1921; Ginsberg 1930–31; Houston 1993; Lipiński 1992a; 1992b; 1992c; Milgrom 1972; 1991; Pardee 1988a; Sznycer 1977.
THE ARAMAIC TEXT IN DEMOTIC SCRIPT (1.99)
Richard C. Steiner
The Aramaic Text in Demotic Script is a text written on both sides of a twelve–foot–long papyrus in the Pierpont Morgan Library (Amherst Egyptian 63), originally joined by a few fragments which are now at the University of Michigan (Michigan–Amherst 43b). It was acquired by Lord Amherst of Hackney at the end of the nineteenth century.
The decipherment of the text has been a long and painful process of trial and error, which began in the early decades of this century and will no doubt continue well into the next millennium. The translation given here should be viewed as an interim progress report, building on the work of many scholars but with many uncertain and controversial elements. Steiner and Moshavi (1995) can be used as a guide to what the author considers reasonably reliable in the translation; however, considerable progress has been made since that selective glossary was completed, and it will need to be expanded.
This largely poetic text is the liturgy of the New Year’s festival of an Aramaic–speaking community in Upper Egypt, perhaps in Syene. It seems to have been dictated by a priest of the community, possibly at the beginning of the third century BCE, to an Egyptian scribe trained in the fourth century BCE.
The original homeland of these people, called rš and ʾrš in the papyrus, is the subject of controversy. The present writer has suggested that it is the land between Babylonia and Elam which the Assyrians called Rashu and Arashu and that Assurbanipal, who captured Rashu in his campaign against Elam, deported its inhabitants to the Assyrian province of Samaria, like the Elamites from Susa mentioned in Ezra 4:9–10. There is reason to believe that most or all of them wound up in Bethel, joining the foreign colonists settled there by earlier Assyrian kings. Their subsequent migration to Egypt may be recorded in the text’s account of the arrival of soldiers from Judah and Samaria (XVI.1–6).
The text shows how the groups deported by the Assyrians to Samaria “would venerate the Lord but serve their own gods according to the practices of the nations from which they had been exiled” (2 Kgs 17:33).
Veneration of the Lord is represented by prayers in cols. XI-XII that contain Hebrew words and Israelite divine names (Adonai, 7 times, Yaho, once). Among these prayers is one which parallels Ps 20 (XI.11–19). Phrases like “Yaho, our bull” (XI.17; cf. “let them kiss [your] bull[s], ❐let them de❒sire your calves” in V.12), “lord of Bethel” (XI.18, cf. VIII.13), and “a city full of ivory houses” (XI.9, immediately before the prayer), if correctly deciphered, suggest that this prayer is a descendant of one used in Jeroboam’s temple in Bethel. There may even be echoes of this prayer (XI.17) in Abijah’s battlefield condemnation of Jeroboam and his calf-cult (2 Chr 13:8, 10, 12).
Service of other gods is the main thrust of the text, which allows us to follow the progress of a pagan New Year’s festival from morning until night. The rituals have counterparts at Babylon, Emar, and Sumer. The wait in the courtyard (III.9–11) and the declaration of innocence (VI.3, 9) followed by a Heilsorakel (VI.12–18) are paralleled in the ritual for the fifth day of the New Year’s festival at Babylon. The selection by the god of a maiden from among the “daughters of Arash” to be “elevated” to the status of priestess (VIII.13–16) resembles the rite in which “the daughter of any son of Emar” was chosen by the god and “elevated” to the status of entu-priestess (text 1.122 below). The laying of the priestess on a bed of perfumed rushes (V.9, XVI.7) covered with an embroidered bedspread (XVI.13–14) made of flax (XV.15–16) has parallels in Sumerian sacred marriage rites.
The chief gods of the community are referred to as mr “lord” (a back-formation from mry < mrʾy “my lord” attested already in Old Aramaic) and mrh “lady.” These epithets are rendered below as Mar and Marah, because their usage in the text (e.g., IVB.3 lmrty mrh “to my lady, Marah”) suggests that they have taken on the status of names, much like their Canaanite counterpart bʿl “lord,” the epithet of Hadad.
Marah appears to be identified with Nanai in the text (except in VII.2, 6, where they are listed separately). She is depicted as a cow (II.19; XIII.5, 7, 18, 19; XVI.16) that suckles (exceptional) human infants (I.19; II.7–8, 16–17; III.5, 16; IVA.5). Each year, after feasting, she falls asleep in the pit, in the waters of fertility (bšwḥh bmy pryh), where she brings forth sweet fruit for Mar, her consort (II.8–11).
Nanai’s consort, Nebo, appears frequently in the text, as does the god Bethel. The latter is called Resident of Hamath in VIII.6, 10 and Ashi (m)-Bethel in XV.1, 14, 15. This takes us back once again to the Assyrian province of Samaria, where “the men of Hamath made Ashima” (2 Kgs 17:30).
The text concludes with a story about Assurbanipal, the king who destroyed Rashu, and his brother, Shamash–shum-ukin (XVII.5-XXII.9). This story is, in all likelihood, an ancestor of the Sardanapalus legend known from Greek and Latin sources. The original kernel of the story is a piece of pro–Assurbanipal propaganda, similar to the editions of Assurbanipal’s Annals which postdate the civil war, intended presumably to win the hearts and minds of the defeated Babylonians (648–c.620 BCE) or to counter claims by the resurgent Babylonians that the Assyrians had committed aggression against them and deserved to be punished (627–612 BCE). However, there are indications that it was revised at a later date and reused, possibly as a weapon in the propaganda war waged against Nabonidus by Cyrus’ priestly backers (third quarter of the sixth century BCE).
Introduction (I.1–15)
Mar dwells
… mighty
… your ❐in❒timates
… on papyrus
… ❐in❒ the gate
… you shall wri❐te❒
… the king, Mar, with
… [h]arp and lyre
… Rash
… ❐let us❒ ex❐al❒[t]
…
all the go❐d❒[s] …
is ❐exa❒[lted];
exalted is Mar[ah],
…
Marah.
A Plea to Marah to Accept the Morning Sacrifice (I.16–17)
Your ❐nour❒ishment
[we have] sac❐rif❒[iced],
[Ma]rah,
and may [your] e❐ye❒[s]
[glance at]
our sacrifice
Marah’s Contemptuous Rebuff (I.17–19)
[M]an!
… outside,
[and hear me!]
[I am exa]lted.
I rea❐r❒ed you,
you [sucked my breast,]
[the sap of Marah]
[nourished you,]
[she strengthens,]
[she empowers]
with [her] [po]wer.
A Prayer to Marah Who Sustains Mankind from her Grave (II.1–11)
Come out and make
[your] g❐ra❒[ve] …
we will make your grave …
My wis[e] ❐one❒ carries you / for you;
❐she❒ carries your burden and your l[oa]d,
creating
at your decr[ee].
She builds
and upro❐ot❒s;
❐her❒ breast
[su]❐ck❒les ❐y❒ou.
My Princess ea[t]s [and is s]ated ❐and❒ sleeps.
And she ❐lies❒
❐in❒ the pit,
in the waters of fertility,
[bringi]ng forth ❐fr❒uit
for Mar,
and it is sweet
like you.
Another Plea to Accept the Offering (II.11–13)
Marah,
[in] heaven
[you] [re]side;
you dwell on hi❐gh❒,
❐Mar❒(ah).
Your [nour]ishment
we have [sac]❐ri❒ficed,
Marah,
and may [your] eye[s]
g[lan]ce
at our sacrifice.
More Rebuffs (II.14–III.6)
Man!
… outside
❐and❒ [hea]r me!
I am exalted.
[I] reared [you],
you sucked my [bre]ast,
the sap of Marah
nourished [you].
[She streng]thens,
she empowers
with her power.
To …
you call
Hear …
I am the Co[w]
… outside
… out[side]
…
Col. III
[M]an!
… outside,
and hear me!
I am exalted.
I reared you,
you sucked my breast,
the sap of Marah
nourished you.
❐She❒ strengthens,
she empowers
with her power.
The King Denied Entrance (III.6–12)
Our judge
comes/came to the ga❐te❒
and stands/stood still.
“Mar ❐is❒ blessed
seven times
all ❐that which❒
my mouth ❐s❒ays.”
And he (=Mar) [c]ries/[c]ried out:
“You may cert❐ain❒ly not enter,
king.
[Wa]it outside.
Stay at your station.”
He washes/washed
his hands
inside the courtyard.
“Mar,
[bri]ng our ❐lord❒ near to you;
Nebo
… .”
More Rebuffs (III.14–IVA.6)
[Man!]
… outside,
[and] hear me!
I am exa❐lted❒.
I [reared you]
You sucked my ❐bre❒ast,
the sap of Marah
[nourished you.]
[She strengthens,]
[she empowers]
with her power.
Col. IVA
Man!
… [outside,]
and hear me!
I am exalted.
[I] reared you,
you sucked my breast,
the sap of Marah
nourished you.
She strengthens,
she empowers
with her power.
The Enthronement of Marah–Nanai (IVA.6–21)
Kings saw yo[u]
and they were afraid,
Nanai;
you frighten them
in front of their officials
…
exalted.
But we saw/see
the [quee]n,
the queen of Ra[sh]
brought in,
Marah, among the [go]❐d❒s.
And they rise
❐from❒ their thro❐ne❒s:
“Let Marah be enthr[on]ed
among the gods;
let her [th]rone
be glo❐ri❒ous;
in Rash
let [her] footstool
[be] glor❐ious❒.”
…
that Mar[ah] was enthroned /
of the enthronement of Mar[ah]
…
allow our king to come up,
Mar[ah]
… may he bless
… Marah, ❐b❒le❐ss❒
… may he bless you
… [b]less (,) Shamash
… ble[ss]
…
Col. IVB
New Year’s Delights (IVB.1–9)
to Marah … ❐ca❒ll
… to my lady, Marah
the he❐aven❒s
…
…
on the earth.
…
come, walk before ❐me❒
on every
… those who call upon you,
❐mig❒hty one
…
mighty one,
we pu❐t❒
in your cou❐rty❒ard
fr[uit]
from the vin❐eya❒rds
[we brin]g out
on New Years
…
which delight my heart and your heart,
my Fire
…
in El’s heart
Col. V
The Destruction of Rash (V.1–11)
You, Mar, ❐p❒ut
te[rror in the land];
Terror [fi]lled
the country
…
They [de]stroyed for you
all your cit❐ies❒;
in the land
trembling dwells.
…
belittles you,
your entire assembly
of princes.
He ❐re❒viled
your sons and your mothers;
with shackles
he clothed their hands.
He hunted the chiefs;
he treated them all with contempt.
He stoned your baker
who used to present b<re>ad
and make
all your loaves;
your ❐bu❒tcher
who used to present a ram —
he would ❐str❒ike the neck,
he would strike the windpipe,
he would make all
the c<o>ws of your …;
your priest{s}
who used to pr❐es❒ent
the devotee — / meal offering —
he would lay down for you
fragrances and rushes;
❐your❒ ❐mus❒[ici]an{s}
who used to present
joyous music —
he would carry the harp,
he would carry the lyre.
…
they pour
the ❐d❒ri❐nk❒ of his belly.
Kissing the Calves of Bethel (V.12–22)
…
let them kiss [your] bull[s],
❐let them de❒sire your calves,
Exalted One,
the ❐c❒[alves]
of your … s
my m❐outh❒
… and shake
…
…
❐he will❒ find
…
…
Resident of Rash
…
…
❐B❒[e]❐th❒el
Col. VI
A Lament to Mar (VI.1–12)
…
…
…
…
❐Mar❒.
Mar, good god —
my god, what
should I do/have you done?
let me know … my god.
No evil is in my hands,
my god;
no duplicity/slander in my mouth.
(But) you have made me
a lamb in their flocks,
a ram in their folds.
They constantly feel me
(saying) “Let us kill him
that we may become fat and corpulent.
Let us eat his flesh
and become fat;
let us drink his blood
and become inebriated.
Lord, god of Rash, Mar —
Make my body
…
in their mouths,
bitters
under their tongues.
Mar, good god —
my god, what
should I do / have you done?
Let me know … my god.
No evil is in my hands,
our god;
no duplicity/slander in my mouth.
(But) you have made me
a date in their mouths,
sweets
under their tongues.
Lord, god of Rash, Mar —
Make my body
ve❐nom❒ in their mouths,
poison under their tongues.
A Reassuring Reply (VI.12–18)
Mar speaks up
and says to me:
“[Be] ❐stro❒ng,
my ❐se❒rvant, fear not. I will ❐save❒
your ….
To Marah,
if you will …,
to Mar
from your shrine and Rash,
[I shall destroy]
[your] ❐en❒[emy in] your days
and during your year❐s❒
[your] advers[ary]
will be smitten.
[Your foes]
I shall destroy
in front of you;
your foot on their necks [you will place].
[I shall suppo]❐rt❒ your ❐r❒ight (hand)
I shall ❐cro❒wn ❐you❒
with prosperity;
your house
…
…
❐u❒p❐o❒n you
your cup …
…
…
Col. VII
The Blessings of the Gods (VII.1–7)
your blessings
…
may they bless you.
May Mar from Rash
bl❐ess you❒;
Marah from Shur —
[she] should bless you.
May Baal from Zephon bless you;
Pidra[i]/<i> from Raphia —
she should bless you.
May Bel from Babylon
bless you;
Belit from Esangila —
she should bless you.
May Nebo from Borsippa
bless you;
Nanai from Ayakku —
she should bless you.
May the Throne of Horus
and Osiris from the Negeb
bless you.
Offerings to the Gods (VII.7–19)
Give the fire–offerings
and offer (them) up
in fire.
Pick up, send
a lamb, a young sheep;
send a lamb.
Make abundant
holocaust–aroma
for Mar;
may he bless you
abundantly.
Bow down to Anat
and Mami;
to Nebo
send
the consecrated animals.
Let there be remembered
as a remembrance,
Mar,
sixty singers.
Let them lift
their voices, Mar;
Mar, let them bless you.
Let there be remembered
as a remembrance,
Mar,
six❐ty❒
temple ser❐vit❒ors —
their (lit., his) handfuls
of myrrh (and) frankincense
for the nostril[s]
of Bethel.
Let there be remembered
as a remembrance,
Mar,
sixty sheep.
Favor your loved ones,
Mar,
favor your loved ones
and Rash.
Favor your loved ones
(and) Rash.
The blood
of the dead sheep
is a sea.
The sheep
floats
to you,
lord of heaven;
wheat
{of} barley
comes near to you.
…
the dust
… lord,
may you se❐t❒ a hand,
snatch them.
A Hymn to Mar (VII.20–VIII.3)
Your going out, Mar
…
your coming in
…
on …
on the path …
the ❐w❒all
❐your❒ window❐s❒ …
[your] pal❐ace❒,
Mar
…
Col. VIII
[Al]l the blessings
…
until eternity.
your sons,
and with your daughters
he dealt kindly …
❐was brought low❒
and the god of Rash
was victorious over all of them.
An Enticing Invitation (VIII.3–8)
I have taken out
your box, my god —
open (it),
and your mouth
…
Your table
will be covered
with the fat of stags.
Butchers will wait
on it.
All of them,
with skillful hands,
will tremble.
Every bull
you will snatch,
Resident of Hamath.
Your krater
you will pour out
and it will be filled;
and butlers will wait
on it,
each of them standing
and speaking up:
“You are at a banquet.
Look, see!
Drink it!”
A Hymn to Mar (VIII.8–10)
Mar, from your snorts
all the <ea>rth perishes;
like smoke, lord,
from your breaths.
You fly
to your followers;
you spread the wing
like an eagle,
and they arise.
The beams of your house,
Bethel,
are from Lebanon;
from Lebanon,
{and} your garden,
are they.
And Resident of Hamath
…
The Selection of Mar’s Bride (VIII.10–11)
Elevate a lass.
Who is the lass?
All of your manifestations
are concealed.
A Hymn to Mar (VIII.11–13)
Mar is/se<t>s like the sun
and rises like the moon,
like the moon
along the length of his heavens.
Oh, let them build,
in heaven,
your house,
concealed, with stars;
let your bed
be brought down in Epiph.
In your temples
let them build,
lord of Bethel,
a thousand new altars.
The Selection of Mar’s Bride (VIII.13–16)
A beautiful priestess
elevate,
and the burnt offer❐ing❒s of the city
let her offer;
in Rash
…
“This one here
is ❐beauti❒ful;
in the shape of her face
she is love❐ly❒.”
Elevate a lass.
Who is the lass?
All of your manifestations
are concealed.
The Diadem of Prosperity for Mar’s Bride
(VIII.16–22)
Our Prince has ❐been good❒ to
the daughters of Arash:
Mar has ❐gi❒ven
the diadem of prosperity;
the god of <Ra>sh
has crowned her
in his hou[se],
and he makes her rule in his palaces.
He rai❐se❒s her up
like the sea
in his hou[se],
in …
❐his❒ hor❐ns❒
…
like the river.
❐And❒ our Prince,
the god of <Ra>[sh],
has done good with his water;
the god of <Ra>sh,
with the sea.
…
❐Your❒ shrine, Mar,
is perfect;
…
who has improved?
All of it, Mar, my god
…
a diadem of prosperity
…
…
…
…
our yearly harv[est] (lit., ingathering),
because your peo❐ple❒
…
He
… Glean wheat
and glean …
Glean
…
Col. IX
A Prayer for Rain (IX.1–13)
❐Answer me❒
…
from Rash;
❐to❒ my …
… .
The river is disappearing,
it is worn out.
and my lord —
the river
is not rising.
Your mind
is sealed, Mar.
Send to me
your cloud.
Exalted One,
awake for me, awake.
Marah,
lift up the bucket for me;
inspect the canals for me,
Marah.
Inspect,
my g<o>d, my queen,
the pool;
lift up,
the bucket.
In every generation
you rule {in her palaces} in your palaces,
{and} and you/come
…
…
…
and my wife.
I shall bring a ram
to my lord;
…
…
Oh, Bethel,
nourishing god / god of the world,
who causes the sea to rise
generation after generation —
all the clouds of moisture
offspring of the primeval mist
are hidden away for you
Make it rain, Mar;
baths of rain
send down.
Our silver is yours and our gold;
our possessions are yours,
our mature cattle are yours,
like our heifers
(and) yearling calves.
Chorus (IX.13–17)
He will help us.
We shall be raised up in safety.
He will guard our rear.
The god of Rash will help us.
Let us ponder his mysteries.
Mar is my father
and my bull/shepherd.
He will raise me up.
Let me vaunt
his mighty deeds.
…
…
…
…
let the throng say
Amen, Amen.
A hymn to Mar (IX.17–20)
Mar, my god —
father of the orphan, champion of the widow.
She who has lifted up her h❐a❒nds
to you,
you calm
in her sobbing.
She has lifted up her hands —
❐you❒ ca❐lm❒
her sob❐bin❒g.
Mar humbles the haughty.
May you exalt him
with the …
of your …;
[your] catt❐le❒
[and] ❐all❒ your bounty.
Chorus (IX.20–23)
[And he will] ❐help me❒.
I shall be raised up ❐in safety❒.
He will guard [our] r[ear].
The god of R❐ash❒ will
hel❐p❒ us.
Mar is ❐my❒ father
and my bull/shepherd.
He will ra[ise me up].
Let me ❐va❒unt
his migh❐ty❒ deeds
…
…
…
…
let the throng say
Amen, Amen.
Col. X
A Prayer for the Rising of the Nile (X.1–6)
Ret❐urn❒, our father,
Mar of ❐A❒rash;
…
You stretched out the heavens,
Mar,
❐you❒ s❐et❒ the stars in place,
you dwell throughout
the land of Rash,
our god.
Let canal (and) pool
rise through its waves.
Let canal (and) pool
rise through its waves.
The river is poor in floodwater.
The river will die
and it will be bitter.
They will become thin again, Mar;
as thin, god of Rash,
as splinters of flint.
Chorus (X.6–8)
Mar is my father
and my bull/shepherd.
He will raise me/us up.
Let us vaunt
his mighty deeds.
…
…
…
…
let the throng say
Amen, Amen.
A Dream about Rash (X.8–13)
In my dream,
I was in my youth;
I was in the land of Rash.
I was building a city,
in Rash
I was erecting it;
its name was
Ellipi Pait.
Rash was supported;
my lord
watched over
Ellipi Pait:
He would beat
her troublemakers
in her stocks;
he would break (them)
in corporal punishment.
The righteous man
he would help,
escorting him
in the face of his troubles,
him whom the oppression
of the creditor
has filled/embittered.
Chorus (X.13–16)
And he will h<el>p me;
I shall be raised up in safety.
He will guard our rear.
The god of Rash will help me.
Let us ponder his mysteries.
Mar is my father
and my bull/shepherd.
He will raise us up.
Let me vaunt
his mighty deeds.
…
…
…
…
let the throng say
Amen, Amen.
A Prayer for the Destruction of Rash’s Enemies (X.16–20)
Mar who goes ❐out❒
from Rash,
who is like you,
who is more for❐bea❒ring than you?
❐Ta❒ke away, destroy the enemy.
Arise, Mar,
take away, destroy
our enemy
…
❐that❒ the Kassites and
Ela❐m❒ites not destroy us.
May ❐you❒ heal,
❐O❒ Mar,
your int❐imate❒s,
❐that❒ they not per❐ish❒,
and sate
their ❐en❒emi❐es❒
with all that
with ❐which❒
your oppressed ones
[were sated.]
Col. XI
The Bridal Chamber for the Sacred Marriage (XI.1–3)
A …
in …
erect;
on a height
construct it.
Er❐ect❒ ❐i❒t
under lofty ced[ar]s;
there, my powe❐rful❒ one,
may you construct [it],
may you … it.
Father not Old, Brothers not Frail (XI.3–6)
Satu[rate], invigorate (lit., oil)
your father.
Your father
is a disabled old man,
your brothers
are frail.
My father
is not a disabled old man,
my brothers
are not frail,
for my father
is like a stable (full) of steeds;
my brothers,
like eagles
and <wi>ld asses.
Drought in Bethel (XI.6–11)
“You are poor,
my brother.
Why has the flow of the spring
dis❐app❒eared?”
“It flowed
and was lost,
and its flow disappeared.
The well flowed,
its water was lost;
our faces
wasted away / dried out.
Stricken is a city
full of ivory houses
❐and❒ with linen
and lapis lazuli
on her windows;
her insides/windows
a mountain of ma❐rb❒le,
her walls iron and bron❐ze❒.”
A Psalm from Bethel (XI.11–19)
May Horus answer us in our troubles;
may Adonai answer us in our troubles.
O crescent (lit., bow) / bowman
in heaven,
Sahar / shine forth;
send your emissary from the temple of Arash,
and from Zephon may Horus help us.
May Horus grant us what is in our hearts;
may Mar grant us what is in our hearts.
All <our> plans may Horus fulfill.
May Horus fulfill —
may Adonai not fall short in satisfying —
every request of our hearts.
Some with the bow, some with the spear;
but (lit., behold) as for us — Mar is our god;
Horus–Yaho, our bull, is with us.
May the lord of Bethel answer us
on the morrow.
May Baal of Heaven Mar
grant a blessing / bless you;
to your pious ones, your blessings.
Col. XII
Lambs for Adonai (XII.1–3)
❐H❒ear me,
my ❐go❒[d], my king.
Choice ❐lamb❒s,
sh[ee]p,
we sacrifice
to you (alone)
among the gods;
our banquet
is for you (alone)
out of all the supreme beings /
from the shepherds/chiefs
of the people,
Adonai, for you (alone)
out of all the supreme beings /
from the shepherds/chiefs
of the ❐peo❒ple.
Wine and music for Adonai (XII.4–10)
Adonai,
the people bless you;
accept your yearly liturgy.
From the pitcher
saturate yourself,
my god;
I will fill (it) with
the juice of the winepress.
Tower,
mercif❐ul❒ father,
Horus
benefactor of the lowly —
they have mixed wine
in goblets,
in goblets
at our wedding.
Drink, Horus,
from the bounty
of a thousand basins;
saturate yourself, Adonai,
from the bounty of men.
Musicians stand
in attendance upon Mar:
a player of the harp,
a player of the lyre.
Here is the music
of the har<p>,
the music of
a Sidonian lyre
and sweet things
in his ear
at the banquets of men.
A prayer to Adonai (XII.11–17)
Who among gods,
among men, Horus?
Who among gods,
among royalty,
(among)/among non–royalty.
Who is like you, Horus, among gods?
Come from Shur,
take vengeance
for those who call upon you,
a peo❐ple❒ dwelling
among the crooked.
And make us strong again,
beneath you, Horus;
beneath you,
Adonai,
Resident of Heaven;
like the phoenix,
Horus,
Resident of Heaven.
Call out
to us your words
among the crooked;
and make ❐us❒ strong again,
Baal from Ze❐ph❒on.
May Horus grant a blessing.
Arise, Horus,
to our aid / help us.
May Adonai
give heed to my prayer.
Mar, ari❐se❒!
Horus, may you grant protection,
just as you protect
your ey❐e❒ from degeneration.
Col. XIII
A Hymn to Marah–Nanai (XIII.1–9)
❐B❒[le]ssed are you,
O Marah,
more than all
blessed ones.
You are my commander
…
You are my queen
and you are a hawk;
Marah from Rash
are you,
queen over all.
Raise the crowns
…
You had mercy on
him who did not finish
the crowns
of your house.
Merciful one, / Beloved,
the summit of your sanctuary
who can build?
Who can build,
merciful one, / beloved,
the tower
by its side?
Nana, Cow,
the niche for your statue
may you build;
may you ❐carve❒,
my goddess,
the pedestal
of your testimony.
The sun of
blinding light
shines through your windows,
your windows, divine Cow,
over the gate of men.
The men, Dove,
I shall watch for you,
the watch of the portal for you
so that I may satiate myself
from your abundance,
saturate myself,
my si<s>ter,
from your baths
in the sea.
Nanai’s Statue Trampled in the Sack of Rash (XIII.9–17)
The one who rebels (lit., raises a hand)
against Mar/Mar<ah> —
on Nana’s hands
he trampled
and went (away).
He stretc<hed> forth his hand
against the merciful one / beloved,
against the one who nourishes.
He threw down
the one who proclaimed to us
and taught.
He threw down, trampled
the proclaimer
who proclaimed
(and) taught.
He came,
threw down, trampled.
He threw down
the Dove,
threw down my treasure.
For Na❐nai❒
take up the harp,
(for) Baalat
loosen the tongue.
Your metal is shattered;
on my floor
you lie.
Quickly we entered.
We shake it.
Get up
…
that we may exalt you.
Our <str>ength has fallen,
our holy one has fallen,
the teacher of wisdom.
I ran to you.
…
Get up,
watch over the orphan;
over me,
Foster–mother!
The merciful one / beloved was cast;
it was from metal plates.
…
Its feet he smashed,
its hand he smashed.
Against the merciful one / beloved
he came;
its feet he smashed.
Appoint an idol–maker
from Tyre.
A Prayer to Nanai (XIII.17-XIV.4)
Who are you?
You are
my powerful goddess.
From our desolation
grant me rest.
… .
Over the king’s ❐s❒eat,
❐C❒ow-head —
appoint lookouts
over the throne;
over the throne,
Cow of Babylon (ia),
guards.
Col. XIV
Who are you?
You are
our mighty goddess.
Your mer[cy]
for my people —
for my people,
like the gods,
establish, Na❐n❒ai.
Let them become intoxi❐cated❒
with casks of wine;
may you intox❐icate❒
with its intoxication,
Nanai.
Who are you?
You are my power❐ful❒ godd❐ess❒.
From our desolation
grant me rest.
… .
The Tramplers Stricken by Nanai’s Venom (XIV.4–6)
On my back horses have walked;
I am the viper at their heel.
Horses have walked
❐on❒ my belly;
from my poison they grew old,
they were sickened
by my venom,
their hide rotted
from my venomous bite.
Drink an antidote,
…
pick up a remedy,
fill the vessels
with drugs,
load the ❐anti❒dote
with balm.
…
…
…
…
fashion it.
…
Nebo
…
…
Col. XV
Blessings and Prayers (XV.1–9)
…
…
Ashim–Bethel
❐Nebo❒
…
…
❐you❒ entered;
❐with goats❒
you came before
your …
man,
who grants
pea❐ce❒ everlasting.
In the month
of ❐Epiph❒,
may Nebo remember you;
may he put you in mind
on earth and on high.
Blessed are you, Hadad;
Had, with a blessing
fit for El.
Blessed are you,
Baal of Heaven.
The holder of your fort
is the Bull,
Nebo is your ❐gu❒ard,
❐Pid❒rai is
your sturdy beam.
Great Baal!
Tip a pitcher of must
and drink with me.
Spend the night in my house;
come to the threshold,
en❐ter❒.
I have placed
on your tray/crown
…
Bull,
in your memory
whom do you leave?
(Whom) do you regard
in <you>r mind,
Nebo?
A nest among golden stars he sets (for) you.
Into gold,
divine Sheep,
❐let❒ the goldbeaters
❐b❒eat lapis lazuli.
My god, much plunder
I have carried off:
I shall give you
the silver;
the gold will be added to yours.
…
with the foster–fathers
of the orphan,
speak (saying):
“Exalt Mar El,
may you ascribe to him
supremacy.”
They exal<t> me (saying):
“To whom would you liken El,
among foster–fathers
of the orphan?”
Spoon–Stuffed Ducks Brought to the Table (XV.9–12)
I/you/she spoke (saying):
“Come up to me.
Bring near to me
and my dovecote(s)
a dovelet grain.
Bring near to me
and my dovecote(s)
a vessel ❐of cha❒rm,
a vessel of beauty.
❐On❒ an ivory ❐tray❒
bring to the table
of Bel, the king /
of the King’s son (= Nebo son of Bel)
the ducks,
the ducks
placed on ivory.
Stuff the ducks
with a spoon;
make the wine abundant,
increase the fat tenfold.”
Jackal and Hare (XV.12–13)
Jackal, jackal!
Here, in front of you
is a hare!
Moon–howler,
jackal!
Rove,
go out and look!
Rove
away from my wilds!
Hare!
Here, a hunter is hunting you
assiduously,
with skillful hands.
A Prayer to Ashim–Bethel (XV.13–17)
The force of
the divine bull
is your force,
Horus.
Ashim–Bethel,
the force of
the divine bulls
is your force;
your ❐venom❒ is like that of ❐se❒rpents.
Your bow in heaven
you, Mar, ❐sho❒ot;
draw it, Ashim–Bethel,
at your enemies.
My mighty one,
may your hammer be good;
my ❐bro❒ther, for me
against Elam
may ❐you❒ raise it.
My mighty one,
may my linen be good,
my linen
which will touch your couch.
Why does your enemy carry off
…
…
…
He fills his hand
with … and vessel
taking out
from your shrine and Rash
…
that I/you did not see.
Jackal and Hare (XV.17–19)
Jackal, jackal!
❐Here❒, ❐in❒ front of you
is a hare!
Moon–howler,
jackal!
❐R❒ove,
go out and look!
Rove
away from my wilds!
Hare!
Here, a hunter is hunting you
assiduously,
with skillful hands.
Col. XVI
Soldiers from Judah and Samaria (XVI.1–6)
[With] my (own) two eyes
I watched a tr❐oo❒[p]
…
a b[and] of
Samari❐tan❒s
sounded out
my lord, the king.
“Who / From where
are y❐ou❒, lad?
Who / From where
is your …?”
“I come from ❐J❒udah,
my brother
has been br❐ought❒ from Samaria
and now
a man ❐is❒ bring❐ing❒ up
my sister
from J❐er❒usalem.”
“Enter, lad;
we will give you lodging.
A kab of ❐wh❒eat
pick up
on your sho❐ul❒der,
boy;
…
…
…
On your table
will be placed
lap❐is la❒zuli —
from every
dovelet grain,
lapis lazuli;
and from every mina
a vessel of beauty.”
The Sacred Marriage Ceremony (XVI.7–19)
Nana, y❐o❒u are my wife.
The bed of rushes
they have ❐laid❒ down,
perfumed fragrances
for ❐you❒r nostril<s>.
Our goddess,
may you be carried,
escorted ❐t❒o your dear one;
let them bear you
to the dear one.
In your bridal chamber
a priest sings.
Nanai,
bring near to me
your lips.
We dwelled (here)
in the morning;
we shall dwell (here)
in the evening.
I have stayed wi❐th❒ you until evening.
The chosen lad too
has come.
A sound keeps you awake in the ❐evening❒;
into our ❐sh❒rine,
my …,
who is coming?
<A sound of> harps
keeps you awake in the evening;
in the grave
of my ancestor,
a dirge.
A sound of lyres from
the grave keep❐s❒ you awake in the evening.
My beloved,
enter the doo❐r❒
into our house.
With my mouth,
consort of our lord,
let me kiss you.
❐And❒ I go
and enter.
In my nostrils
it is sweet;
Come, enter
the perfumed hideaway.
Horus–Bethel will lay you
on a bedspread;
El, on embroidered covers.
In his heavens,
Mar from Rash blesses;
Mar, a bless❐ing❒
before Bethel
everlasting:
“My sister, Marah —
blessed are you,
O Cow, our lady.”
“Blessed are you,
O Had,
with a blessing
fit for El.
Blessed are you,
Baal of Heaven.”
“Rebuild, man, Ellipi.
A cursed land rebuild,
a city of ruins rebui❐ld❒;
by the side
of the Hambanites.
a great land.
Keep alive the pauper;
…
the poor [m]an.
Col. XVII
A Lament for Nineveh After the Wedding (XVII.1–5)
O ❐my❒ godd❐ess❒ / “Woe,” ❐I❒ lamented
… the king
…
you/I have come
here;
indeed
you were / I was brou❐ght❒ up
to my garden.
You/I have perfumed
my scent
amo❐ng❒ cedars;
you/I have played music
on a l❐y❒re;
you/I have put down
perfume.
Baal of Heaven
has come up,
ascended to my/your bower.
O ❐my❒ goddess, / “Woe,” I lamented,
…
O my goddess, / “Woe,” I lamented,
I wailed.
Ni<ne>veh is (nothing but) swamps; /
There are swamps in Ni<ne>veh;
it [has tur]❐ned❒ into mud.
T<o> (lit., dow<n to>) the ground
it has been razed (lit., thrown down).
A Tale of Two Brothers in Two Cities (XVII.5–XXII.9)
Omens When the Princes Were Born (XVII.5–XVII.13)
The year in which was born
our lord, King Sar❐ba❒nabal,
the land was prosperous
the thin, the split
grew thick.
A man would find
its gatekeepers
in good health
(and be told):
“You, my brother,
enter this gate.
From our house
let us fetch (lit., take) for you
a morsel (of bread)
and let me roast a goat
on … onions.”
(Then came) days
which had not been,
years which had not
passed / been spent / been turned.
The year in which was born
our lord, our brother,
Sarmuge,
the earth was bronze, the heavens, of iron,
the soil,
in a bad/<a>rid state,
the heavens,
in poor/droughty condition,
A ma<n> would find its gatekeepers
very greatly
in distress / in need of food
(and be told): “Get away <from> this gate.”
They (lit., he) would be wary of him
as of spies.
Sarmuge Sent to Babylonia as Governor to Collect Tribute (XVII.14–18)
(Then came) ❐da❒ys
which had not been,
years which had not
passed / been spent / been turned.
The king
spoke up and said,
addressing
Sar[mu]ge:
“Go
to (!) the land
of Babylonia.
Eat ❐its❒ bread
(as good) ❐as la❒mb
Dri❐nk❒ its wine
(as good) as the finest imported wine.
Devo<te> yourself
to its payment
of tribute
to [A]❐ssy❒ria.”
Sarmuge went
❐to❒ the land
of Ba❐by❒lonia.
He (!) ❐a❒te its bread
(as good) as [lamb].
He [d]❐ra❒nk its wine
(as good) as the finest import❐ed wine❒.
He devoted himself
to ❐its❒ p[ay]me❐nt❒
of tribu❐te❒
[to] [A]ssy[ria].
Col. XVIII
A Defiant Message Instead of Tribute from
Sarmuge’s Emissaries (XVIII.1–4)
(Then came) days
which had not [b]❐e❒en,
years which had not
passed / been spent / been turned.
The emissaries went out
from <Ba>bylon
until they were ushered
into Nineveh.
They longed to (lit., for) rest
and to satiate themselves, (lit., and satiation)
dressed in their tunics.
“From Sarmuge
to Sarbanabal.
I am the king
of (!) / in (!) Babylon,
and you are
the/a governor
of/in Ni<ne>veh.
Pay tribute to me!
Why should I show you respect?”
The Emissaries Imprisoned and Released (XVIII.5–15)
The king became angry
at the emissaries.
“Let them be brought down
from the dining hall, / to (!) the dungeon,
allotted bread and water.”
The sun shone (and) rose.
The general sent up ❐ser❒vants
to (!) the palace / from his palace.
“The word of our lord
to the king:
‘O lord of kings, hear!
From the days of your father,
from the days of
your father’s fathers,
emissaries
have not been imprisoned,
allotted bread and water.
Take out the emissaries
from the dungeon.
Let them be brought
to the bathhouse.
Dress them in embroidered garments.
Go to the prince;
be gracious to him.
Count their sin against me.’ ”
The advice was pleasing to the king.
The king
spoke up and said:
“I will take out the
emissaries
from the dungeon.
Let them be ❐brought❒
to the ba❐t❒h house.
I will dress them
in embroi❐dered❒ garments.
I shall go to the prince;
I shall be gracious to him.
Go out, emissaries, <from> the dungeon.
Be brought
to the ❐ba❒th house.
Pu❐t❒ on
embroidered garments.
I shall go ❐to❒ [the prince];
[I sha]❐ll be grac❒ious to ❐hi❒m.”
Saritrah Sent to Reason With an Ungrateful Brother (XVIII.15–XIX.8)
The king
❐spo❒[ke up] and [sai]d:
“Let them call
[S]aritrah,
my sister.
❐Let❒ Saritrah ❐be❒ ❐br❒[ought].
❐Let her (!)❒ be caused
to [st]and
in the ga[te]
of the [p]ala❐ce❒
of the king ….”
The ❐ki❒[ng]
[spoke up and said,]
Col. XIX
add[re]❐ss❒ing
Saritrah:
You …
The rotten fellow
who has sinned against me —
I made him the/a governor
of (!) / in (!) Babylon,
while I am king
in/of Nineveh.
A mighty horse
from (!) Media —
it was brought
to Sarmuge.
{Mighty} linen from (!) Egypt —
we brought (it)
to our brother.
Daggers / Purple (wool)
from … /Ty<re>
we brought <to> Sarmuge.
A mighty bow from Elam
we brought to our brother.
Go to the rotten fellow.
Speak,
say (it) to him.
Let him know,
listening to your words
and giving heed
to your remarks.”
Saritrah’s Journey to Babylon (XIX.8–12)
Sarit (ah) went out
from the palace.
They seated her in the chariot.
She set her fac❐e❒ toward Babylon.
The lookouts went up on the wall
of Babylon.
The lookouts
spoke up (and) said:
“The troop which
is coming / has come
is too large
to consist of emissaries,
too small
to consist of warriors.”
Saritrah beckoned
from the city gate.
“Who here
is this / are you?”
“I am Saritrah,
sister of
the twins / the equal brothers.”
An Attempt to Persuade Sarmuge to Return to Nineveh (XIX.12–XX.2)
Sarmuge
spoke up and said:
“Nikkal is now
between me and Sarit (ah):
She (=Nikkal) will not
let her (! = Saritrah)
see my face.”
Saritrah
spoke up (and) said:
“Who made us/me
like ❐stub❒ble
<for> her feet?
Sarmuge, my brother!
Fortune has con<fou>nded you
and smiled upon (lit., been good to)
your brother.
Do listen to my words,
and may you give heed ❐to❒ my remarks.
Act like (lit., make yourself) a governor /
Put your hands / (in) fetters.
Lift up ❐your❒ feet from here.
Come to the king,
your bro❐ther❒.
He is fo❐rbea❒ring.
❐He❒ will not del<ay>
in <re>❐ce❒iving you.”
Col. XX
Sarmuge
spoke up and said:
“Have [you] rubbed down
❐and rested❒
your hor❐se❒?
Why so swift
your riding?
A Second Unsuccessful Attempt at Persuasion
(XX.2–6)
Sarit[rah]
spoke up (and) said:
“Listen / hear me, lord,
listen / hear me!
Truly, truly —
two kings
are being overturned
on account of
one of (!) them;
a man (lit., a brother)
and ❐his❒ brother
are quarreling
on account of
one of (!) them.
If my advice may be heard — /
If my king will listen to me —
disregard the tribute
<which> they did not pay you.
Act like (lit., make yourself) a governor/
Put your hands (in) fetters.
Lift up your feet from here.
Come to the king,
your brother.”
Sarmuge
did not listen to her,
and did not give <heed>
to her remarks.
Saritrah’s Parting Advice (XX.6–11)
Sarit (ah) spoke up (and) said:
“If you will not listen
to my words,
and if you will not give heed
to my remarks,
go from the house of Bel,
away from the house of Marduk.
Let there be built for you
a bower (lit., a house of boughs);
a booth (lit., a house of sticks)
do constr<uct>.
Throw down tar and pitch
and sweet–smelling/Arabian perfumes.
Bring in your sons
and your daughters
and your doctors
who have made you act brashly.
When you see
how (low) they have sunk
on you (= to your detriment),
let fire burn you
together with your sons
and your daughters
and your doctors
who have made you act ❐bra❒shly.”
Saritrah’s Return and Report to the King (XX.11–15)
Sarit (ah) went out
from Babylon.
She set her face (toward) Nineveh.
She turned ❐her❒ ha❐nd❒ (and) her foot
to go out from Babylon
until she (!) was ushered
into Nineveh.
The king
spoke up (and) said,
addressing Saritrah:
“What said to you
the rotten fellow
to ❐who❒m I sent you?”
“The mee❐ti❒ng was
stormy (lit., like a blazing fur❐nace❒).
He contemned me.”
The General Sent to Bring Sarmuge Back Alive (XX.15–18)
The king
spoke up and said,
addressing the general:
“I shall call up
the <t>roops
in (to) the rank<s> of
the Ninevites.
You appoint a scribe
for ❐ba❒tt<le>,/ Ca❐ll❒ up
a war–scribe,
and polish all of your ❐swo❒rds and your spea❐rs❒.
Furthermore,/Afterwards,
to Babylon you shall go,
general,
at the head
of a det❐achment❒.”
The ❐k❒in❐g❒
spoke up and said,
addre❐ss❒ing
the general:
“Furthermore,/Afterwards,
let them smite Babylon
(but) let them keep my brother alive.”
An Appeal and a Warning from the General (XX.18-XXI.7)
The ge❐ne❒ral went ❐out❒
from (!) the pala❐ce❒.
They seated him
in the cha[ri]ot.
He [se]❐t❒ h❐is❒ face
[toward] [Ba]bylon.
Col. XXI
The loo❐kouts❒ went up
to the wall of Babylon.
The look[out]❐s❒
spoke up (and) said:
“The troop [which]
❐is coming / has come❒ is
too large
to consist of emissaries,
too small
to be the army of the king.”
The general
spoke up and said,
addressing Sarmuge:
“Listen / hear me, lord,
listen / hear me!
Truly — two kings
are being overturned
on account of (!)
one of them.
If my advice may be heard — /
If my king will listen to me —
disregard the tribute
which they did not pay you
Act like (lit., make yourself) a governor/
Put your hand (in) fetters.
Lift up your feet from here.
Come to the king, your brother.
He is forbearing.
He will not del<ay>
in receiving you.”
Sarmuge
spoke up and said:
“So he (= the king) decreed
upon his governor,
your servant,
and so it is decreed.”
“Then if so,
listen to your words
and may you give <heed>
to your remarks.
Begone,
for the wall of Babylon
in three days / after a day
we shall capture;
for the wall
I shall breach
af<t>er a day.”
Sarmuge’s Suicidal Response (XXI.7–11)
Sarmuge went
from the house of Bel,
away from the house of Marduk.
He {will have} built for himself
a bower (lit., a house of boughs);
a boot❐h❒ (lit., house of stic❐ks❒)
he did con❐stru❒ct.
He threw down tar and pitch
[and] sweet–smel❐ling❒ / Ara❐bian❒
[pe]rfumes.
He brou❐ght❒ in
his sons
and ❐his❒ daughters
❐and❒ [hi]❐s❒ doc❐tors❒
❐who❒ had made him act brashly.
Wh❐en❒ he [s]aw
❐how❒ (low) they had sunk
on h❐im❒ (= to his detriment),
… ❐burned h❒im …
with hi[s] sons
[and his daughters]
and his doc[tor]s
who had made h❐im❒ act brashly.
A Desperate Attempt to Bring Sarmuge Back Alive (XXI.11–15)
The g❐en❒[er]al
keeps al❐ive❒ …
y[ou]ng <and> old.
He ❐we❒[nt] ❐out❒
[from the palace].
They seated him
in the chari[ot].
He (!) ❐se❒t
❐hi❒[s] fa❐c❒[e]
toward <Ba>❐bylon❒. (sic!?)
Sarmuge
[he took] ❐with❒ [him].
Away they hu❐rr❒ied,
and they [ca]me
…
…
men
…
The doctor pounds
balm [and] [cas]sia;
(with) fran❐kinc❒[ense]
and lau❐da❒[num].
He bandages
…
He supports … on … a be❐d❒.
❐He ga❒ve
…
and ❐he hurried❒
… ❐up❒ to the wall
…
Reactions to Sarmuge’s Death (XXI.16–XXII.9)
…
The daughters of As❐sy❒[ria] … ❐mou❒[rned] ❐and❒ ❐wa❒[iled].
…
…
…
❐to❒ <Ba>bylon
…
❐to perish❒
… ❐and on❒
…
Col. XXII
❐my❒ [ha]❐nds❒
in/with his blood.”
…
to …
to which of (lit., to whom out of all of)
…
one … bring near.
❐To❒ my ❐sist❒er
let him be sent
❐and let him❒ say:
… the … s
who overturned him
I shall bani❐sh❒.
They rebelled against me (lit., their hand
they lifted up against me),
the one who nourished him
…
Saritrah
urged the king.
She sent (and)
urged the king
to ❐wr❒ite his wo[r]❐d❒
“Let them
❐take away❒ … haughtiness from my presence.
I shall break
…
❐r❒ope
…
To the ❐he❒[ig]ht❐s❒ of
his temple
[I shall] ascend,
[I shall] go.”
Remember
how he perished (lit., his perishing),
(and) you shall bea❐r❒
your yo[ke],
refraining from ❐go❒ing up
to the hou[se] of
the one who holds
❐h❒[eav]❐en❒ and earth.
The king
❐spo❒[ke up] and said
❐ad❒[dress]ing the gener❐al❒:
“[Leave] the ❐pa❒lace,
get out.
Your sentence
I [pronounce]
on behalf of my god
…
Your ❐fa❒ce
he will not let [me] ❐see❒,
[for] ❐I❒ said [to you]:
‘Let them smite Babylon
(but) let them keep my brother al❐ive❒.’ ”
REFERENCES
Bowman 1944; Kottsieper 1988; 1992; Nims and Steiner 1983; Segert 1986; Smelik 1983; Steiner and Nims 1984; 1985; Steiner 1991; 1995; Steiner and Moshavi 1995; Vleeming and Wesselius 1982; 1983–84; 1985; 1990; Weinfeld 1985a; 1985b; Zevit 1990.
A UGARITIC INCANTATION AGAINST SERPENTS AND SORCERERS (1.100)
(1992.2014)
Dennis Pardee
A new Ugaritic incantation text, similar in many respects to RIH 78/20 (text 1.96), was discovered in 1992 in the archive that has since been identified as belonging to Urtenu (Bordreuil and Pardee 1995), a high official in the city shortly before its demise (Arnaud 1982:106). The incantation was prepared especially for Urtenu (see lines 14–15) and shows a concern for venomous reptiles reminiscent of that visible in the “para–mythological” text RS 24.244 (text 1.94). We learn from this text that especially to be feared was the joining of forces between sorcerers and serpents. The text is expressed in the first person, the incantation priest speaking to the individual who fears attack.
Incantation Against Serpents (lines 1–8)
(When) the unknown one a calls you and begins foaming,
I, for my part, will call you.
I will shake bits of sacred wood,
So that the serpent not come up
against you,
So that the scorpion not stand up under you.5
The serpent will indeed not come up against you,
The scorpion will indeed not stand up under you!
Incantation Against Sorcerers (lines 8–13)
In like manner, may the tormenters, the sorcerers
not give ear d
To the word of the evil man,
To the word of any man:
When it sounds forth in their mouth, on their lips,
May the sorcerers, the tormenters, then pour it to the earth.
Dedication to Urtenu (lines 14–15)
For Urtenu, for his body, for his members.12
REFERENCES
Arnaud 1982; Bordreuil and Pardee 1996; Lipiński 1983; Pardee 1978b; 1993a; forthcoming.
THE LONDON MEDICAL PAPYRUS (1.101)
Richard C. Steiner
The London Medical Papyrus, usually dated to the late 18th dynasty (fourteenth century BCE), contains a number of short Semitic magical texts transcribed into hieratic syllabic script (Wreszinski 1912:150–152). Like magical texts of later periods, they are written in a Mischsprache, reflecting their transmission from one group to another. As befits a period when Canaanite vassals wrote to their Egyptian suzerain in Akkadian colored by their own dialects, we appear to be dealing with a mixture of Northwest Semitic dialects (Canaanite and Aramaic), with Egyptian phrases (rendered below in bold letters) and a few Akkadian terms thrown in for good measure. The determinatives used by the scribe show that he understood the texts and provide invaluable guidance to the decipherer. It appears that in these texts, Egyptian k renders Semitic ḳ, and Egyptian s renders Semitic š and s (as well as ś and ṯ), against the norm for this period. The notes given below are meant to supplement those of Steiner (1992); they are fullest for those phrases which were not yet deciphered in that article.
(Number 27) [Another] incantation against ḥ-m-k-tu-sickness in the language of those who dwell beyond the desert edge (= foreigners):
[Hea]ler, hidden one (= Amun), honor your spirit …
… spittle of our lord, spittle …
… spittle of our father. Ishtar, mother4 …
(Number 28)
…
❐E❒shmun, [our] father
Ishtar and …
(Number 29)
… physician …
…
… healing
(Number 30) An incantation against the fnṯ-snake/worm:
“❐L❒eave us,” I say, “l<ea>ve us.” (Twice.) We have said our incantation.
(Number 31)
It is not so–and–so but I, the daughter of Spr.tw–n.s, the daughter of my lord,7 the governess.
(Number 33) An incantation against s-mu-n–sickness.
And ❐through❒ the vomiting up of the drunken demon,
let ḥ-m-k-tu go out, (O) my healer, great one, mother.
REFERENCES
Bossert 1946:114; von Deines, Grapow, and Westendorf 1958:254–259; Ebbell 1924:149; Helck 1971:528–529; Massart 1954:50–52; Steiner 1992; Wreszinski 1912.
B. ROYAL FOCUS
1. EPIC
THE KIRTA EPIC (1.102)
Dennis Pardee
The Kirta story was recorded on three tablets that were discovered during the second and third campaigns at Ras Shamra (1930–1931). Lacunae prevent a complete understanding of the story, which must have been longer, recorded on tablets never discovered. On the other hand, the high degree of poetic narrative repetition permit the comparatively certain restoration of some important lacunae. The story turns around the difficulties encountered by Kirta, king of a city designated only as Bêtu-Ḫubur, in obtaining an heir to his throne and in maintaining his hold on life after the birth of the son. The absence of reference to Ugarit may indicate that the story had its origin elsewhere, though that origin is uncertain, both in time and in place. The reference to Tyre and Sidon indicates an origin not far from Phoenicia and the mention of horses indicates a version dating after the introduction of the horse into the area (early second millennium). The story may have served a didactic role at Ugarit, teaching proper relationships between kings and deities, between people and king, and between royal offspring and their parents.
CTA 141
Classification of Tablet (i 1)
[Belonging to (the)] Kirta3 (text).
…
The Loss of Kirta’s Brothers and Wives (i 7–25)
The house of the king perished,
who had seven brothers,
eight siblings. b
Kirta—(his) family was crushed,
Kirta—(his) home was destroyed.
His rightful wife he never obtained,
even his legitimate spouse. d
A (nother) woman he married and she disappeared,
even the kinswoman who had become his.7
A third spouse died in good health,f
a fourth in illness;
A fifth Rašap gathered in,
a sixth the lad(s) of Yammu,
the seventh of them fell by the sword.
Kirta saw his family,
he saw his family crushed,
his dwelling utterly destroyed.
Completely did the family perish,
in their entirety the heirs.
Kirta Mourns, Sleeps, Has a Dream (i 26 – iii 153)
He entered his room, he wept
as he spoke (his) grief, he shed tears.
His tears poured forth
like shekel (–weights) to the earth,
like five (–shekel–weights) to the bed.
As he wept, he fell asleep,
as he shed tears, he slumbered.
Sleep overcame him and he lay down,
slumber and he curled up.
In a dream ʾIlu descended,
in a vision, the father of mankind.
He came near, asking Kirta:
Who is Kirta that he should weep?
should shed tears, the goodly lad of ʾIlu?
Would he request the kingship of the Bull, his father,
or dominion like (that of) the father of mankind?
Kirta Claims No Desire for Wealth, Preferring Children (i 52 – ii 58)
[What need have I of silver
and of yellow gold]
along with its place;
Of a perpetual [servant],
of three [horses],
of a chariot in a courtyard,
of the son of a handmaid?
[Permit] me to acquire sons,
[Permit] me to multiply [children].
ʾIlu’s Reply: How to Obtain the Child–Bearing Wife (ii 59 – iii 153)
The Bull, his father ʾIlu, [answered]
[ (with) goodly (words)] as Kirta wept,
as the goodly lad of ʾIlu shed tears:
Sacrifice (ii 62–79)
Wash and rouge yourself,
wash your hands to the elbow,
your fingers to the shoulder.
Enter [the shade of (your) tent],
take a lamb [in your hand],
a sacrificial lamb [in] (your) right hand,
a kid in both hands,
all your best food.
Take a fowl, a sacrificial bird,
pour wine into a silver cup
honey into a golden bowl.
Climb to the summit of the tower,
yes, climb to the summit of the tower,
mount the top of the wall.
Raise your hands heavenward,
sacrifice to the Bull, your father ʾIlu.
Bring down Baʿlu with your sacrifice,
the Son of Dagan with your game.
Preparation for the Campaign (ii 79–84)
Then Kirta must descend from the rooftops,
must prepare food for the city,
grain for Bêtu-Ḫubur.
He must bake bread for the fifth (month),
fine foods for the sixth month.
Description of the Army (ii 85–103)
A throng will be provisioned and march forth,
a mighty throng will be provisioned,
a throng will indeed go forth.
Your army will be a numerous host,
three hundred myriads,
soldiers without number,
archers without count.
They will go by thousands like storm–clouds,
by myriads like rain.
After two, two go,
after three, all of them.
Even Those Normally Excused from Military Service Will Go (ii 96–103)
The only son must shut up his house,
the widow hire someone (to go).
The invalid must take up his bed,
the blind man grope his way along.
The newly–wed must go forth,
entrusting his wife to someone else,
his beloved to someone unrelated.
The Campaign (ii 103 – iii 123)
Like grasshoppers you will invade the field,
like locusts the edges of the steppe–land.
Go a day, a second,
a third, a fourth day,
a fifth, a sixth day.
Then at sunset on the seventh (day)
you will arrive at ʾUdmu the great (city),
at ʾUdmu the well–watered (city).
Occupy the cities,
invest the towns.
The women gathering wood will flee from the
fields,
from the threshing–floors the women gathering straw;
The women drawing water will flee from the
spring,
from the fountain the women filling (jugs).
Then for a day, a second,
a third, a fourth day,
a fifth, a sixth day,
Do not shoot your arrows at the city,
your sling–stones at the towers.27
Then at sunset on the seventh (day of the siege)
Pabil the king (of that city) will not (be able to) sleep
For the sound of the roaring of his bulls,
for the noise of the braying of his donkeys,
for the lowing of his plough–oxen,
the howling of his hunting dogs.
Reaction of the King of ʾUdmu to the Siege (iii 123–136)
He will send messengers to you,
to Kirta at his camp:
Message of Pabil the king:
Take silver
and yellow gold
along with its place;
A perpetual servant,
three horses,
a chariot in a courtyard,
the son of a handmaid.
Take, Kirta, many gifts of peace,
leave, king, my house,
go away, Kirta, from my court.
Do not besiege ʾUdmu the great (city),
ʾUdmu the well–watered (city).
ʾUdmu was given of ʾIlu,
(it is) a present of the father of mankind.
Kirta’s Reply (iii 136–53)
Send the messengers back to him (with the message):
What need have I of silver
and of yellow gold
along with its place;
Of a perpetual servant,
of three horses,
of a chariot in a courtyard,
of the son of a handmaid?
Rather, you must give what my house lacks:
give me maid Ḥurraya,
the best girl of your firstborn offspring;
Whose goodness is like that of ʿAnatu,
whose beauty is like that of ʾAṯiratu;
The pupils (of whose eyes) are of pure lapis-
lazuli,
whose eyes are like alabaster bowls,
who is girded with ruby;
That I might repose in the gaze of her eyes,
whom ʾIlu gave in my dream,
even in my vision, the father of mankind;
That she might bear a scion for Kirta,
a lad for the servant of ʾIlu.
Kirta Awakes, Carries Out the Instructions (iii 154 – end of tablet)
Kirta looked about and it had been a dream,
the servant of ʾIlu, and it had been a vision.
He washed and rouged himself,
washed his hands to the elbow,
his fingers to the shoulder.
He entered the shade of (his) tent,
took a sacrificial lamb in his hand,
a kid in both hands,
all his best food.
He took a fowl, a sacrificial bird,
poured wine into a silver cup
honey into a golden bowl.
He climbed to the summit of the tower,
mounted the top of the wall.
He raised his hands heavenward,
sacrificed to the Bull, his father ʾIlu.
He brought down [Baʿlu] with his sacrifice,
the Son of Dagan with his game.
Kirta descended from the [rooftops],
he prepared food for the city,
grain for Bêtu-Ḫubur.
He baked bread for the fifth (month),
[fine foods] for the sixth month.
A throng was provisioned and [marched forth],
[a mighty] throng was provisioned,
[a throng did] indeed [go forth].
His army was a [numerous] host,
three hundred myriads.
They went by thousands like storm–clouds,
by myriads like rain.
After two, two went,
after three, all of them.
The only (son) shut up his house,
the widow hired someone (to go).
The invalid took up his bed,
the blind man groped his way along.
The newly–wed conducted (his bride),
entrusted his wife to someone else,
his beloved to someone unrelated.
Like grasshoppers they invaded the field,
like locusts the edges of the steppe–land.
Kirta Takes a Vow (iv 194–206)
They went a day, a second;
at sundown on the third (day)
He arrived at the sanctuary of ʾAṯiratu of Tyre,
at (the sanctuary of) the goddess of Sidon.
There noble Kirta took a vow:
The gift of ʾAṯiratu of Tyre,
the goddess of Sidon (is this):
If I (successfully) take Ḥurraya to my house,
Bring the girl into my courts,
Double her (weight) in silver I will give,
triple her (weight) in gold.
(Then) he went a day, a second,
a third, a fourth day.
At sundown on the fourth (day)
he arrived at ʾUdmu the great (city),
at ʾUdmu the well–watered (city).
He occupied the cities,
invested the towns.
The women gathering wood fled from the fields,
from the threshing–floors the women gathering straw;
The women drawing water fled from the spring,
from the fountain the women filling (jugs).
Then for a day, a second,
a third, a fourth day,
a fifth, a sixth day,
<They did not shoot their arrows at the city,
their sling–stones at the towers.>
Then at sundown on the seventh (day)
Pabil the king (of that city could) not sleep
[For the sound of] the roaring of his bulls,
for the noise of the braying of his donkeys,
[for the lowing] of his plough–oxen,
the howling of his hunting dogs.
Thereupon Pabil [the king]
cried aloud to his wife:
Hear …
Now [head] off
towards [Kirta in (his)] camp
and say to noble [Kirta]:
Message [of Pabil the king]:
Take [silver
and yellow] gold
[along with its place];
A [perpetual] servant,
[three] horses,
[a chariot] in [a courtyard,
the son of a handmaid.
Take, Kirta, many gifts of peace,
do not besiege ʾUdmu the great (city),
ʾUdmu the well–watered (city).
ʾUdmu was given of ʾIlu,
(it is) a present of the father of mankind.
Leave, king, my house,
go away, Kirta,] from my courts.
…
[Then the messengers left without hesitation,
They headed off
Towards Kirta in his camp].
They raised [their voices and said aloud]:
Message [of Pabil the king]:
Take [silver
and yellow] gold
[along with its place];
A [perpetual] servant,
[three] horses,
[a chariot] in a courtyard,
[the son of a handmaid.]
Take, Kirta, many [gifts of peace],
do not besiege ʾUdmu the great (city),
ʾUdmu the well–watered (city).
ʾUdmu was given of ʾIlu,
(it is) a present of the father of mankind.
Go away, king, from my house,
Leave, Kirta, my courts.
Noble Kirta replied:
What need have I of silver
and of yellow [gold]
along with its place;
Of a perpetual servant,
of three horses,
of a chariot in a courtyard,
of the son of a handmaid?
Rather, you must give what my house lacks,
give me maid Ḥurraya,
the best girl of your firstborn offspring;
Whose goodness is like that of ʿAnatu,
whose beauty is like that of ʾAṯiratu;
The pupils (of whose eyes) are of pure lapis–lazuli,
whose eyes are like alabaster bowls;
Whom ʾIlu gave in my dream,
even in my vision, the father of mankind;
That she might bear a scion for Kirta,
a lad for the servant of ʾIlu.
The messengers left without hesitation,
They headed off
Towards Pabil the king.
They raised their voices and said aloud:
Message of noble Kirta,
word of the goodly [lad of ʾIlu …]
CTA 1540
Praise of Ḥurraya (i 1–7)
With her hand [she raises the hungry one,]
with her hand she raises the thirsty one.
[…]
to Kirta in his camp,
(As) the cow lows for her calf,
the young nurslings for their mother,
so the ʾUdmites will lament for her.
Kirta’s Reply (i 8 – ii broken section)
Noble Kirta replied:
…
Banquet for the Gods (ii 1–11)
…
Noble Kirta prepared [a banquet] in his house
…
[Thereafter] the assembly of the gods arrived.
Blessing of ʾIlu (ii 12 – iii 19)
Mighty Baʿlu spoke:
Must you not depart, Gracious One, kindly [god],
must you not (go to) bless noble [Kirta],
must you not pronounce a benediction upon the goodly [lad] of ʾIlu?
[ʾIlu] took a cup [in] (his) hand,
a goblet in [ (his) right hand].
He did indeed bless [his servant,]
ʾIlu blessed [noble] Kirta,
[pronounced a benediction] upon the goodly lad of ʾIlu:
The woman you take, Kirta,
the woman you take into your house,
the girl who enters your courts,
She shall bear you seven sons,
even eight shall she produce for you.
She shall bear the lad Yaṣṣubu,
who will drink the milk of ʾAṯiratu,
shall suckle at the breasts of Girl [ʿAnatu].
Suckling …
…
[Greatly uplifted] is Kirta,
[amongst the Shades] of the earth,
[in the gathering of] the assembly of Ditānu.
Her time will come and she will bear daughters for you:
she shall bear girl […]
she shall bear girl […]
she shall bear girl […]
she shall bear girl […]
she shall bear girl […]
she shall bear girl […]
Greatly uplifted is [Kirta],
amongst the Shades of the earth,
in the gathering of the assembly of Ditānu.
The youngest of these girls, I shall treat as the firstborn.
The gods bless, then depart,
the gods depart to their tents,
the circle of gods to their dwellings.
Birth of Kirta’s Children (iii 20–25)
Her time came and she bore a son for him,
her time came and she bore (two) sons for him.
In seven years’ time
Kirta’s sons were as they had been vowed (by ʾIlu),
and so also were Ḥurraya’s daughters.
ʾAṯiratu Claims the Vow (iii 25–?)
Then ʾAṯiratu thinks of his vow,
the goddess […].
She raises her voice and [cries out]:
O Kirta […]
Or has repeated the vow […]?
I’ll annul […]54
…
Kirta Sets a Feast (iv 1–13)
Aloud to [his wife he cries out]:
Listen, [lady Ḥurraya]:
Slaughter the best [of your fatlings],
open jars of wine;
Invite my seventy bulls,
my eighty gazelles, ll
the bulls of Ḫubur the great,
of Ḫubur [the well–watered].
…
Ḥurraya Obeys (iv 14 – vi)
Lady Ḥurraya listened:
She slaughtered the best of her fatlings,
she opened jars of wine.
She brings in to him his bulls,
she brings in to him his gazelles,
the bulls of Ḫubur the great,
of Ḫubur the well–watered.
The house of Kirta they enter,
to the dwelling […]
to the tent of myrrh they proceed.
She puts forth (her) hand to the bowl,
puts the knife to the meat.
Lady Ḥurraya announces:
To eat, to drink have I invited you,
[…] Kirta your master.
…
She puts forth (her) hand to the bowl,
puts [the knife to] the meat.
Lady Ḥurraya [announces]:
To eat, to drink have I invited you,
…
[For] Kirta you will weep,
…
Kirta will go to where the sun sets,
our master to where the sun rises.
Then Yaṣṣubu will reign over us,
…
Listen […]:
Again eat and drink
Lady Ḥurraya announces:
To eat, to drink have I invited you,
(to) the sacrificial feast [of Kirta] your lord.
They weep over Kirta,
Like the voice of bulls is their voice.
In a dream […] Kirta …
CTA 16
[Belonging to] (the) Kirta (text).
ʾIluḥaʾu Deals with the Prospect of His Father’s Death (i 2–23)
Like a dog we grow old in your house,
like a hound in your court;
Must you also, father, die like mortal men,
must your court pass to mourning,
to the control of women, beloved father?
Will the mountain of Baʿlu weep for you, father,
Ṣapānu, the holy citadel,
Nannaya the mighty citadel,
the broad–spread citadel?
For Kirta is the son of ʾIlu,
the offspring of the Gracious and Holy One.
Unto his father he entered,
he wept, gnashed his teeth,
raised his voice in weeping.
In your life, father, we! rejoice,
In your not dying do we find happiness.
Like a dog we grow old in your house,
like a hound in your court;
Must you also, father, die like mortal men,
must your court pass to mourning,
to the control of women, beloved father?
How can (that be when) they say:
Kirta is the son of ʾIlu,
the offspring of the Gracious and Holy One.
Do gods die,
Does the offspring of the Gracious One not live?
Kirta Replies, Requesting That Ṯitmanatu Be Summoned (i 24–45)
Noble Kirta replied;
Do not weep, my son,
do not lament for me.
Do not empty out, my son, the fountain of your
eyes,
the water from your head, your tears.tt
Summon your sister Ṯitmanatu,
the daughter whose … is strong,
that she may weep, may lament for me.
(My) boy, no need to tell your sister (right away),
no need to tell your sister to mourn.
I know that she is compassionate;
so let’s not have her pour forth her tears in the fields,
her utterances on the heights.
[…] the rising of the great one, the sun,
the shining of the great light.
Say to your sister Ṯitmanatu:
Kirta has prepared a sacrificial feast,
the king has set a banquet.
Take your tambourine in (your) hand,
your […] in (your) right hand.
Go stay on the heights (where) your lord75 (lives);
take [silver] as your gift,
gold for all.
ʾIluḥaʾu Complies (i 46 – ii?)
Thereupon, valiant ʾIluḥaʾu,
took his spear in hand,
his … in (his) right hand.
He approached (the place called) TRẒẒ;
when he arrived it was getting dark.
His sister had come out to draw water;
he planted his spear in a mound.
Her face came out the door,
then she saw her brother.
Her […] broke on the ground,
[…] her brother, she wept.
[Is he] sick, the king,
[…] Kirta your lord?
Valiant ʾIluḥaʾu [replied]:
[Not?] sick is the king,
[…] Kirta your lord.
[…] has prepared a sacrificial feast,
[…] has set a banquet.
…
Ṯitmanatu Learns the Truth (ii 79–?)
She approached her brother [and said]:
Why are you leading me [to …]?
How many months has he [been sick],
how long has Kirta been ill?
Valiant [ʾIluḥaʾu] replied:
Three months has he [been sick],
Even four has Kirta been ill.
Perhaps Kirta has already departed.
A tomb you will …
Ṯitmanatu Mourns the Prospect of Losing Her Father (ii 97–111)
She wept, gnashed her teeth,
raised her voice in weeping.
In your life, father, we rejoice,
In your not dying do we find happiness.
Like a dog we grow old in your house,
like a hound in your court;
Must you also, father, die like mortal men,
must your court pass to weeping,
to the control of women, beloved father?
Do gods die,
Does the offspring of the Gracious One not live?
Will the mountain of Baʿlu weep for you, father,
Ṣapānu, the holy citadel,
Nannaya the mighty citadel,
the broad–spread citadel?
For Kirta is the son of [ʾIlu],
the offspring of the Gracious [and Holy] One.
Ṯitmanatu Visits Her Father (ii 112–?)
Weeping she entered [unto her father],
She entered the …
The Earth Does Not Produce (iii)
Oil was poured [from a bowl].
(Someone) saw the quaking of earth and heaven,
did the rounds to the extremities of the earth,
of (its) well–watered portions.
A spring for the earth is the rain of Baʿlu,
even for the field(s) the rain of the High One;xx
Good for the earth is the rain of Baʿlu,
even for the field(s) the rain of the High One.
Good is it for the wheat in the garden(s),
in the tilled land (for) the emmer,
upon the mounds (for) the ….
The ploughmen lifted (their) heads,
on high those who work the grain,
(For) the bread was depleted [from] their bins,
the wine was depleted from their skins,
the oil was depleted from [their jars]. zz
…
The Divine Machinery is Set in Motion for Healing Kirta (iv)
…
Like ʾIlu are you wise,
like the Bull, the Gracious One.
Summon the herald of ʾIlu, ʾIlšu,
ʾIlšu, <the herald of the house of Baʿlu>,
and his wife, the herald of the goddesses.
…
He summoned the herald of ʾIlu, ʾIlšu,
ʾIlšu, the herald of the house of Baʿlu,
and his wife, the herald of the goddesses.
The Gracious One, the kindly god, responds:
Listen, herald of ʾIlu, ʾIlšu,
ʾIlšu, herald of the house of Baʿlu,
and your wife, the herald of the goddesses:
Climb to the summit of the edifice,
to the high terrace …
ʾIlu Seeks a Healer Among the Gods (v 10–22)
…
The Gracious One, [the kindly god, asked]:
[Who] among the gods [will expel the sickness],
banish the illness?
[None of the gods] responded to him.
A [second time, a third time] he spoke:
Who among [the gods will expel] the sickness,
banish [the illness]?
None of the gods responded [to him].
[A fourth], a fifth time he spoke.
[Who among the gods] will expel the sickness,
banish [the illness]?
None of the gods responded [to him].
A sixth, a seventh time he spoke:
[Who] among the gods will expel the sickness,
banish the illness?
None of the gods responded to him.
Finding No Takers, ʾIlu Fashions a Healer (v 23–?)
So the Gracious One, the kindly god, said in
response:
Go sit down, my sons, on your seats,
on your princely thrones.
I will personally fashion and establish,
will establish a female expeller of the sickness,
a female banisher of the illness.
He filled [his hand] with clay,
[his right hand] with the very best clay.
He pinched off … ccc
End of ʾIlu’s Address to Šaʿtiqatu the Healer (vi 1–2)
O death, be shattered,
O Šaʿtiqatu, be powerful.
Šaʿtiqatu Does Her Job (vi 2–14)
Off went Šaʿtiqatu:
she entered Kirta’s house,
amongst weeping did she arrive and enter,
amongst distress did she go on in.
She overflew cities …
overflew towns …
…
the sickness (from?) upon his head.
She comes back (or: sits down), washes him of his perspiration,
opens up his throat so he can eat,
his gullet so he can dine.
Death is shattered,
Šaʿtiqatu is powerful.
Kirta Recovers (vi 14–24)
Noble Kirta gave orders,
he raised his voice and said aloud:
Listen, lady Ḥurraya:
Slaughter a lamb that I might eat,
a fatling that I might dine.
Lady Ḥurraya listened:
She slaughtered a lamb and he ate,
a fatling and he dined.
Then for a day, even two,
Kirta returned to his (throne–)room,
he sat on the royal throne,
on the dais, on the seat of dominion.
Yaṣṣubu, Impatient, Wishes to Rule (vi 25–end)
Yaṣṣubu also returned to the palace,
where his inner self instructed him:97
Go to your father, Yaṣṣubu,
go to your father and speak,
say to Kirta [your lord]:
Listen closely and tend [ (your) ear:
When raiders] lead [raids],
and creditors [detain (debtors)],
You let your hands fall slack:
you do not judge the widow’s case,
you do not make a decision regarding the oppressed.
Illness has become as it were (your) bedfellow,
sickness (your) constant companion in bed.
So descend from your kingship, I will reign,
from your dominion, I, yes I, will sit (on your throne).
Yaṣṣubu the lad went off,
entered his father’s presence.
He raised his voice and said aloud:
Listen, noble Kirta,
listen closely and tend (your) ear:
When raiders lead raids,
and creditors detain (debtors),
You let your hands fall slack:
you do not judge the widow’s case,
you do not make a decision regarding the oppressed
you do not cast out those who prey upon the poor.
Before you, you do not feed the orphan,
behind your back the widow.
Illness has become at it were (your) bedfellow,
sickness (your) constant companion in bed.
So descend from your kingship, I will reign,
from your dominion, I, yes I, will sit (on your throne).
Kirta, Not Liking That Idea at All, Curses Yaṣṣubu (vi 54–58)
Noble Kirta responded:
May Ḥôrānu break, my son,
may Ḥôrānu break your head,
Aṯtartu “name” of Baʿlu your skull.
You will surely fall …
… and be humbled.
Colophon
The scribe: ʾIlīmilku the ṯāʿiyu–official.
REFERENCES
Text: CTA 14–16; KTU 1.14. Translations and studies: Caquot, Sznycer and Herdner 1974; Driver 1956; Garbini 1983; Gevirtz 1961; Gibson 1978; Ginsberg 1946; Gordon 1977; Greenfield 1969; Haak 1982; Held 1968; Herdner 1963; Lipiński 1978; de Moor 1980a; 1987; del Olmo Lete 1981; Pardee 1987; 1988a; 1989–90; Parker 1989; Sanmartín 1980; Virolleaud 1936a; 1941a; 1941b; 1942–43a; 1942–43b.
THE ʾAQHATU LEGEND (1.103)
Dennis Pardee
The ʾAqhatu story was recorded on three tablets that were discovered during the second and third campaigns at Ras Shamra (1930–1931). Lacunae prevent a complete understanding of the story, which must have been longer, recorded on tablets never discovered. Like the story of Kirta, this one tells how a father obtained a son, here Dānīʾilu and his son ʾAqhatu, but from that point the two stories diverge: Here the son assumes the primary role instead of the father. The kernel of the story is ʾAqhatu’s confrontation with a deity, the goddess ʿAnatu, whose overtures to obtain his favorite bow he repels, with the result that the goddess has him put to death. After his death, his sister Pūǵatu comes to the center of the stage, a heroine who attempts to avenge her brother’s death. She is apparently on the point of doing so when the text breaks off.
CTA 17
Dānīʾilu Seeks a Son (i 1–34)
[Thereupon, as for Dānīʾilu the man of Rapaʾu],
thereupon, as for the valiant [Harnamite man],
Girded, he gave the gods food,
[girded, he gave] the Holy Ones [drink].
He cast down [his cloak, went up], and lay down,
cast down [his girded garment] so as to pass the night (there).b
A day, [even two,
girded,] Dānīʾilu (gave) the gods (food),
[girded,] he gave [the gods] food,
girded, [he gave] the Holy Ones [drink].
A third, even a fourth day,
[girded,] Dānīʾilu (gave) the gods (food),
girded, he gave [the gods] food,
girded, he gave the [Holy] Ones drink.
A fifth, even a sixth day,
girded, Dānīʾilu (gave) [the gods] (food),
girded, he gave the gods food,
[girded,] he gave the Holy Ones drink.
Dānīʾilu cast down his cloak, went up, and lay
down,
[cast down] his girded garment so as to pass the night (there).
Baʿlu Appears, Intercedes on Dānīʾilu’s Behalf (i 16–27)
Then on the seventh day,
Baʿlu approached, having had mercy on
The lamenting of Dānīʾilu the man of Rapaʾu,
the groaning of the valiant Harnamite [man],
Who had no son like his brothers,
no scion like his kinsmen.d
May he, like his brothers, have a son,
like his kinsmen, a scion.
For, girded, he has given the gods food,
girded, he has given the Holy Ones drink.
O Bull ʾIlu, my father, please bless him
please pronounce a benediction upon him, O creator of creatures,
So that he may have a son in his house,
a scion within his palace:
The Duties of a Son (i 27–34)
Someone to raise up the stela of his father’s god,
in the sanctuary the votive emblem of his clan;
To send up from the earth his incense,
from the dust the song of his place;
To shut up the jaws of his detractors,
to drive out anyone who would do him in;
To take his hand when (he is) drunk,
to bear him up [when] (he is) full of wine;
To eat his grain (–offering) in the temple of Baʿlu,
his portion in the temple of ʾIlu;
To re-surface his roof when rain softens it up,
to wash his outfit on a muddy day.
ʾIlu Blesses Dānīʾilu (i 35–?)
[A cup] ʾIlu took <in his hand,
a goblet in his right hand,
He did indeed bless> his servant,
blessed Dānīʾilu the man of Rapaʾu,
pronounced a benediction upon the valiant Harnamite [man]:
May Dānīʾilu, [the man] of Rapaʾu, live indeed,
may the valiant Harnamite man live to the fullest.
[…] may he be successful:
to his bed he shall mount [and lie down];
As he kisses his wife [there will be conception],
as he embraces her there will be pregnancy;
[…] she who was about to bear,
pregnancy [for the man of] Rapaʾu.
He will have a son [in his house,
a scion] within his palace:
[Someone to raise up the stela of] his father’s god,
in the sanctuary [the votive emblem of his clan];
To send up from the earth [his incense,
from the dust the] song of his place;
[To shut up the jaws of his detractors],
to drive out anyone who would do [him] in;
…
ʾIlu’s Promise is Recounted to Dānīʾilu (ii 1–8)
…
[Someone to raise up the stela of your father’s god,
in the sanctuary the] votive [emblem of your clan;
To send up from the earth your incense,]
from the dust the song [of your place;
To shut up] the jaws of your detractors,
to drive out [anyone who would do you in;]
To eat your grain (–offering) in the temple of
[Baʿlu,
your portion] in the temple of ʾIlu;
To take your hand when [ (you are) drunk],
to bear you up when (you are) full of wine;
To roll your roof when rain softens it up,
to wash your outfit on a muddy day.
Dānīʾilu Rejoices in the Prospect of a Son (ii 8–23)
Dānīʾilu’s face lit up with joy,
His countenance glowed.17
Signs of worry disappeared from his forehead as
he laughed,
he (relaxed as he) put his feet on the footstool.
He cried aloud:
I can sit and be at rest,
my innermost being can rest,
For a son will be born to me, as (to) my brothers,
a scion, as (to) my kinsmen:
Someone to raise up the stela of my father’s god,
in the sanctuary the votive emblem of my clan;
<To send up from the earth my incense>,
from the dust the song of [my] place;
To shut up the jaws of my detractors,
to drive out anyone who would do me in;
To take my hand when (I am) drunk,
to bear me up when (I am) full of wine;
To eat my grain (–offering) in the temple of Baʿlu,
my portion in the temple of ʾIlu;
To roll my roof when rain softens it up,
to wash my outfit on a muddy day.
Dānīʾilu Does His Part (ii 24–?)
Dānīʾilu arrived at his house,
Dānīʾilu entered his palace.
The Kôṯarātu entered his house,
the daughters of brightness, the pure ones.
Thereupon, as for Dānīʾilu the man of Rapaʾu,
thereafter, as for the valiant Harnamite man,
A bull he slaughtered for the Kôṯarātu,
he fed the Kôṯarātu,
provided the daughters of brightness, the pure ones, with drink.
A day, even two,
he fed the Kôṯarātu,
provided the daughters of brightness, the pure ones, with drink.
A third, even a fourth day,
he fed the Kôṯarātu,
provided the daughters of brightness, the pure ones, with drink.
A fifth, even a sixth day,
he fed the Kôṯarātu,
provided the daughters of brightness, the pure ones, with drink.
Then, on the seventh day,
the Kôṯarātu left his house,
(as did) the daughters of brightness, the pure ones.
… the lovely bed …
… the beautiful bed …
Dānīʾilu sat down to count the months …
…
The Bow is Promised (v 2–3)
I will bring the bow there,
I’ll bring arrows in multiples of four.
Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu Arrives and Presents the Bow to Dānīʾilu (v 3–33)
Then, on the seventh day,
Dānīʾilu the man of Rapaʾu,
the valiant Harnamite man,
Arose and sat at the entrance to the (city–)gate,
among the leaders (sitting) at the threshing floor.
He judged the widow’s case,
made decisions regarding the orphan.
Looking up he perceived
a thousand yards off,
ten thousand furlongs off,
He saw Kôṯaru coming,
saw Ḫasīsu striding along.
He was bringing the bow,
bringing the arrows in multiples of four.
Then Dānīʾilu the man of Rapaʾu,
then the valiant Harnamite man,
Aloud to his wife did call:
Listen, Lady Dānatay:
prepare a lamb from the flock
For the throat of Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu,
for the gullet of Hayyinu29 the handicrafter.
Give the gods something to eat, something to
drink,
serve, honor them,
the lords of Memphis, the gods of all of it.
Lady Dānatay listened,
she prepared a lamb from the flock
For the throat of Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu,
for the gullet of Hayyinu the handicrafter.
When Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu arrive,
they place in Dānīʾilu’s hand the bow,
set upon his knees the arrows.
Then Lady Dānatay
gave the gods something to eat, something to drink,
served, honored them,
the lords of Memphis, the gods of all of it.
Kôṯaru left for his tent,
Hayyinu left for his dwelling place.
Dānīʾilu Presents the Bow to ʾAqhatu (v 33–end)
Thereupon, Dānīʾilu the man of Rapaʾu,
thereupon, the valiant Harnamite man,
The bow he …
[…] upon/unto ʾAqhatu he …33
The best of your game, O [my] son […]
[…] the best of your game […]
[…] game in his temple/palace […]
ʿAnatu Demands of ʾAqhatu His Bow (vi 16–19)
[She raised her voice] and shouted:
Listen, [valiant ʾAqhatu]:
Ask for silver and I’ll give (it to) you,
[for gold and I’ll] present (it to) you.
Just give your bow [to ʿAnatu],
let the sister–in–law of Liʾmu [take] your arrows.
Aqhatu Isn’t Interested (vi 20–25)
Valiant ʾAqhatu replied:
I’ll vow ash wood from Lebanon,
I’ll vow sinews from wild bulls,
I’ll vow horns from rams,
tendons from the hocks of a bull,
I’ll vow reeds from ǴLʾIL.
Give (these) to Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu,
and he’ll make a bow for ʿAnatu,
arrows for the sister–in–law of Liʾmu.
ʿAnatu Ups the Ante (vi 25–33)
Girl ʿAnatu replied:
Ask for life, O valiant ʾAqhatu,
ask for life and I’ll give (it to) you,
for immortality and I’ll make it yours;
I’ll make you count years with Baʿlu,
with the son of ʾIlu will you count months;
(You will be) like Baʿlu (who), when he comes
(back) to life, feasts:
they give a feast to the living one, give him drink,
the goodly one chants and sings in his honor.
So I, for my part, will answer (the request),
I will give life to valiant ʾAqhatu.
Aqhatu, Still Not Interested, Shows Little Tact (vi 33–40)
Valiant ʾAqhatu replied:
Don’t lie to me, girl,
your lies are despicable to a real man;
What after (life) can one obtain?
what can a man obtain hereafter?
(For) they will pour glaze [on] (my) head,
white stuff over my cranium.
[And] I’ll die the death of every man,
I also must surely die.
[Moreover], I’ve something else to say:
The bow is a fighting man’s [weapon];
Shall womankind now go hunting?
ʿAnatu Takes Umbrage, Threatens ʾAqhatu (vi 41–45)
[Outwardly] ʿAnatu laughs,
But within she hatches [a plot].
Reconsider, valiant ʾAqhatu,
reconsider for your own sake […].
(Otherwise) I’ll meet you on the path of rebellion,
[…] on the path of pride,
I’ll personally bring you down and [trample] you,
(however) good and strong (you may be) among men.
ʿAnatu Departs, Seeks Permission from ʾIlu to Attack ʾAqhatu (vi 46–end)
[She dug in] her feet,
took off across the earth;
She [headed off]
towards ʾIlu at the source of the two rivers,
[amidst the fountains] of the deeps.
She penetrated Ilu’s abode,
[entered the] dwelling of the king, father of Šunama.
[At ʾIlu’s feet] she bowed and fell,
she did homage [and honored] him.
She heaped slander on valiant ʾAqhatu,
[… the child of] Dānīʾilu the man of Rapaʾu.
[Girl ʿAnatu] spoke,
[she raised] her [voice]
and cried out the word […]
Colophon (left edge)
[The scribe: ʾIlīmilku the Šubbanite, disciple of ʾAttānu-]purulini.
CTA 18
ʿAnatu Threatens ʾIlu (i 1–14)
…
[Girl ʿAnatu] replied:
[In the grandeur of] your [house], O ʾIlu,
[in the grandeur of your house do not rejoice],
do not rejoice [in the height of your palace].
Will I [not] seize them [in my right hand],
[… in my] broad grasp?
[I’ll smite the …] of your head,
I’ll make [your gray hair] flow [with blood],
your [gray] beard with gore.
(If) [you (appeal to)] ʾAqhatu, will he (be able to)
save you?
will the son of [Dānīʾilu] (be able to) help you
(when you’re) in the grasp of Girl [ʿAnatu]?
ʾIlu Caves In (i 15–19)
The Gracious One, the kindly god, replied:
I know you, (my) daughter, (I know) that you are
a manly sort,
and that [among goddesses] there is none so emotional as you.
(So) let anger (against me) depart (from) [your]
heart, (my) daughter;
[ (so then) go ahead and] lay hold of what you desire,
carry out what you wish:
The one who gets in your way may be struck
down.
ʿAnatu Leaves, Addresses ʾAqhatu (i 19–end)
Girl ʿAnatu [left],
headed [off
towards] valiant ʾAqhatu,
A thousand yards away,
[ten thousand] furlongs.
Girl [ʿAnatu] laughed,
[raised] her voice and cried out:
Hear, valiant [ʾAqhatu],
You are (my) brother and I am [your] sister,
[…] seven of your kin […]
[…] of my father […]
[…] you’ll go hunting […]
[…] I’ll teach you […]
[…] the city of ʾAbilūma,
ʾAbilūma [the city of Prince] Yariḫu,
Of which the tower […]
…
ʿAnatu and YṬPN Devise a Plan of Attack (iv 5–27)
Girl ʿAnatu left,
[headed off]
towards YṬPN, the soldier of the Lady.64
Girl ʿAnatu cried [aloud]:
YṬP sit/return […]
(to) the city of ʾAbilūma,
ʾAbilūma [the city of Prince Yariḫu].
How can Yariḫu not be renewed?
[…] on his right horn,
on the? […] of his head?
YṬPN, [the soldier of the Lady], replied:
Listen Girl ʿAnatu:
You are the one who will strike him [for his bow]
(for) his arrows, you will not [let] him [live].
The goodly warrior has prepared a meal,
and […] he has stayed on in tents,
and he has settled […].
Girl ʿAnatu replied:
Sit down, YṬP, and [I’ll tell] you (what we’ll do):
I’ll put you like a hawk under [my] belt,v
like a bird in my bag.72
[When] ʾAqhatu [sits down] to eat,
the son of Dānīʾilu for a meal,
[Above him] the hawks will soar,
[the flock of] birds will survey the scene.
I myself will soar amongst the hawks,
above ʾAqhatu (I’ll) position you.
Strike him twice on the head,
three times above the ear,
Pour out (his) blood like one emptying (a bucket),
(pour it out) on his knees like one slaughtering (an animal),
So that his life force rushes out like wind,
like spittle his vitality,
like smoke from his nostrils.
Thus I’ll not let the soldier live on!
The Plan is Carried Out (iv 27–37)
She took YṬPN, the soldier of the Lady,
put him like a hawk under her belt,
like a bird in her bag.
When ʾAqhatu sat down to eat,
the son of Dānīʾilu for a meal,
The hawks soared above him,
the flock of birds surveyed the scene.
ʿAnatu soared [amongst] the hawks,
above [ʾAqhatu] she positioned him.
He struck him twice [on the head],
three times above the ear,
Poured out his blood [like] one emptying (a
bucket),
(poured it out) [on his knees] like one slaughtering (an animal),
[His] life force rushed out like wind,
[like spittle] his vitality,
like smoke [from his nostrils].
ʿAnatu Expresses Sorrow (iv 37–end)
[Moreover,] ʿAnatu, as she smote the soldier,
[…] ʾAqhatu,
She wept […]
I would have made […]
But on account of [your bow …],
[on account of] your arrows you have ceased [to live].
…
… perished …
CTA 19
Classification of Tablet (i 1)
[Belonging to (the)] ʾAqhatu (text).
Something Happens to the Coveted Bow (i 2–5)
…
… the bow was broken …
… the eight […] were broken …
Another Account of ʾAqhatu’s Death (i 5–19)
Girl ʿAnatu returned […]
[…] took weapons83 as (does) [… in] his hand,
as (does) a singer the lyre (in) his fingers.
The “stones of his mouth” tore,
his teeth seized,
they put food in his devouring (maw).
He tore according to the wishes of the gods,
then he told the exploits,
the prince recounted his exploits:
ʾAqhatu has been put down like a veritable
fugitive,
like a vicious viper in a wall,
(like) a dog on its stake did I smite him.
For on account of his bow I smote him,
on account of his arrows I did not let him live.
His bow, however, was not given to me,
and in death […].
The first growth of summer has/will […],
the ear in the stalk.
The Father Learns of ʾAqhatu’s Death (i 19 – ii 93)
Thereupon, Dānīʾilu the man of Rapaʾu,
thereupon, the valiant Harnamite [man],
Arose [and sat at the entrance] to the (city–)gate,
among [the leaders (sitting) at the threshing floor].
He judged [the widow’s case],
made decisions [regarding the orphan].
…
… the coming of …
Looking up, she sees …
On the threshing floor […] is dried up
bends over, droops, do the young ears […].
Above her father’s house hawks were soaring,
a flock of birds were surveying the scene.
Pūǵatu began to weep inwardly,
to shed tears silently.
She tore the garment of Dānīʾilu the man of
Rapaʾu,
the cloak of the valiant Harnamite man.
Dānīʾilu Seeks to Counter the Effects of the Drought (i 38–46)
Thereupon, Dānīʾilu the man of Rapaʾu,
uttered a spell upon clouds in the heat of the season,96
upon the rain that the clouds pour down on the summer fruits,
upon the dew that falls on the grapes.
Seven years has Baʿlu failed,
eight (years) he who rides upon the clouds:
No dew, no showers,
no upsurging (of water) from the deeps,
no goodly voice of Baʿlu.
Dānīʾilu Inspects the Effects of the Drought (i 46 – ii 74)
When she had torn the garment of Dānīʾilu the
man of Rapaʾu,
the cloak of the valiant Harnamite man,
Aloud [Dānīʾilu called] to [his] daughter:
Listen Pūǵatu, you who bear [water] on (your)
shoulders,
who gather dew for barley,
who know the paths of the stars:
Saddle the donkey, harness the ass,
put (on it) trappings of silver,
decorations of yellow (gold).
Pūǵatu listened, she who bore water on (her)
shoulders,
who gathered dew for barley,
who knew the paths of the stars:
Weeping she saddled the donkey,
weeping she harnessed the ass,
Weeping she lifted her father,
placed him on the back of the donkey,
on the beautiful back of the ass.
Dānīʾilu approached, circulated through his
cracked fields,
he spied something green (growing) in the cracked field,
he spied something green (growing) among the weak (sprouts).
He hugged the green growth (to himself), he kissed
(it and said):
Oh that the green growth would grow tall in the cracked field,
(Oh that) the green growth would grow tall among the weak (sprouts).
O plant, may the hand of valiant ʾAqhatu gather
you,
put you in the storehouse.
He approached thereunto, circulated through his
desolate fields,
he spied an ear of grain (growing) in the desolate field,
he spied an ear of grain (growing) among the dried–up (sprouts).
He hugged the ear of grain (to himself), he kissed
(it and said):
Oh that the ear of grain would grow tall in the desolate field,
(Oh that) the ear of grain would grow tall [among] the dried–up (sprouts).
O plant, may the hand of valiant ʾAqhatu gather you,
put you in the storehouse.
The Message of Death (ii 75–93)
Hardly had the words left his mouth,
[the utterance] his lips,
When, raising her eyes, she (Pūǵatu) sees
(and) there is no [… in] the arrival of two pages,
…
He/they struck [twice] on the head,
three times above the ear.
…
They arrive [and say] aloud:
Listen, Dānīʾilu, [man of Rapaʾu]:
Valiant ʾAqhatu is dead.
Girl ʿAnatu [caused his life force to go out] like
[wind]
like spittle his vitality.
Dānīʾilu’s Reaction (ii 93 – iv 189)
[His (Dānīʾilu’s) feet] totter,
above, [his face perspires,
behind], his back muscles [snap,
his vertebrae rattle,
his spine] goes weak.
[Aloud] he cries […]
has smitten …
[…]
Dānīʾilu’s Rather Unorthodox, Though Empirically Sound, Search for ʾAqhatu’s Remains (ii 105 – iii 145)
When he raised [his eyes and looked, he saw
[hawks] in the clouds.
He cried out [aloud]:
May Baʿlu break [the wings of the hawks],
may Baʿlu break [their pinions],
So that they fall down at my feet,
so that I may open up [their innards],
[And] see whether there be (there) any fat,
whether there be (there) any bone,
So that I may weep, so that I may bury him,
so that I may put (him) in a grave (with) the gods of the earth.
Baʿlu Responds (iii 113–120)
Hardly had the words left his mouth,
the utterance his lips,
When Baʿlu broke the wings of the hawks,
Baʿlu broke their pinions.
They fell down at his feet;
he opened up their innards and [looked]:
no fat, no bone.
He cried out aloud:
May <Baʿlu> rebuild the wings of the hawks,
may Baʿlu rebuild their pinions.
May the hawks escape and fly away!
Another Try (iii 120–134)
When he raised his eyes and looked, he saw
Hirgabu, father of the hawks.
He cried out aloud:
May Baʿlu break Hirgabu’s wings,
may Baʿlu break his pinions,
So that he fall down at my feet,
so that I may open up [his] innards,
And see whether there be (there) any fat,
whether there be (there) any [bone],
So that I may weep, so that I may bury him,
so that I may put (him) in a grave (with) the gods [of the earth].
Again Baʿlu Responds (iii 127–134)
[Hardly had the words left his mouth],
the utterance his lips,
When Baʿlu broke Hirgabu’s wings,
Baʿlu broke his pinions.
He fell down at his feet;
he opened up his innards and looked:
no fat, no bone.
He cried out aloud:
May Baʿlu rebuild Hirgabu’s wings,
may Baʿlu rebuild his pinions,
May Hirgabu escape and fly away!
The Third Time’s the Charm (iii 134–145)
When he raised his eyes [and] looked, he saw
Ṣamlu, mother of the hawks.
He cried out aloud:
May Baʿlu break Ṣamlu’s wings,
may Baʿlu break her pinions,
So that she fall down at my feet,
so that I may open up her innards,
And see whether there be (there) any fat,
(whether) there be (there) any [bone],
So that I may weep, so that I may bury him,
so that I may put him in a grave (with) the gods [of the earth].
Yet Again Baʿlu Responds (iii 141–144)
Hardly had the words left his mouth,
the utterance his lips,
When Baʿlu <broke> Ṣamlu’s wings,
Baʿlu broke her pinions,
She fell down [at] his feet.
Dānīʾilu Finds ʾAqhatu’s Remains and Buries Them (iii 144–147)
He opened up her innards and looked:
there was fat, there was bone.
He took from them ʾAqhatu;
he wailed, slept not a wink,113
He wept and buried (him),
buried him in a dark place, in KNKT/KNRT.
Dānīʾilu Warns Off the Hawks (iii 148–151)
He cried out aloud:
May Baʿlu break the wings of the hawks,
may Baʿlu break their pinions,
If they fly over the grave of my son,
if they do him harm as he sleeps.
Dānīʾilu Curses the Environs of ʾAqhatu’s Murder (iii 151 – iv 168)
Spring of [water], may what pertains to you be
destroyed,
Woe to you, spring of water,
for you must bear the responsibility for valiant ʾAqhatu’s murder:
(May you) constantly (be) an alien residing (as a
refugee) in a temple,117
now, for a long time, and forever more,
now and for all generations.
He took thereafter (his) staff (in) his hand,pp
traveled to MRRT TǴLL BNR.
(There) he cried out aloud:
Woe to you, MRRT TǴLL BNR,
for you must bear the responsibility for valiant ʾAqhatu’s murder:
May your root not grow in the earth,
may (your) top be lowered into the hand of him who would pull you up;
now, for a long time, and forever more,
now and for all generations.
He took thereafter (his) staff (in) his hand,
traveled to the city of ʾAbilūma,
ʾAbilūma, city of Prince Yariḫu.
(There) he cried out aloud:
Woe to you, city of ʾAbilūma,
for you must bear the responsibility for valiant ʾAqhatu’s murder:
May Baʿlu make you blind,
at this very moment and forever more,
now and for all generations.
Dānīʾilu Goes Home and Mourns His Son
(iv 169–179)
He took thereafter (his) staff (in) his hand,
Dānīʾilu traveled to his house,
Dānīʾilu arrived at his palace.
The wailing women entered <his house>,
the mourning women his palace,
those who rend their skin his court.123
They (all) wept for valiant ʾAqhatu,
shed tears for the child of Dānīʾilu the man of Rapaʾu.
For days, for months,
for months, for years,
even for seven years
Did they (all) weep for valiant ʾAqhatu,
shed tears for the child of Dānīʾilu the man of Rapaʾu.
Dānīʾilu Halts the Mourning and Sacrifices
(iv 179–189)
[Then] after seven years
[Dānīʾilu the man of] Rapaʾu spoke up,
The valiant [Harnamite] man responded.
He cried aloud:
Leave [my house], wailing women,
my palace, mourning women,
my court, you who rend your skin.
Then he offered the sacrifice of the gods,
caused his DǴṮ-sacrifice to ascend (as smoke) to the heavens,
the Harnamite DǴṮ-sacrifice [of] the stars.
…
Pūǵatu Sets out to Avenge her Brother (iv 190–end)
Pūǵatu, she who bore water on (her) shoulders, re-
sponded:
My father has offered sacrifice to the gods,
has caused his DǴṮ-sacrifice to ascend (as smoke) to the heavens,
the Harnamite DǴṮ-sacrifice of the stars.
Pūǵatu Seeks and Receives her Father’s Blessing (iv 194–202)
Now bless me so that I may go in a state of bless-
edness,
pronounce a benediction upon me so that I may go beatified,
So that I may strike down him who struck down
my brother,
so that I may finish off him who finished off the (most important) child of my family.
Dānīʾilu the man of Rapaʾu responded:
May [Pūǵatu] live (long and prosper), she who
bears water on (her) shoulders,
who gathers dew for barley,
who knows the paths of the stars.
[…] she will be successful:
She will strike down the one who struck down [her
brother],
she will finish off him who finished off the (most important) child of [her] family.
Under the Disguise of a Woman, Pūǵatu Dresses as a Warrior (iv 202–208)
[…] that falls in the sea,
she washed herself, [hand] and shoulder;
She rouged herself with ‘husk of the sea’,
which ranges a thousand furlongs in the sea.
She […], she puts on the outfit of a warrior,
she put [a knife in] her NŠG,
a sword she put in [her] sheath;
Then over (these) she put on women’s garb.
Pūǵatu Meets her Brother’s Assassin (iv 208–224)
[At] the going forth of the Divine Light, the Sun,
Pūǵatu […] the MʾINŠ of the fields;
At the setting–place of the Divine Light, the Sun,
Pūǵatu arrived at the tents.
Word is brought to YṬPN:
Our hireling has come to your dwelling,
[the girl] has come to the tents.
YṬPN, [the soldier of] the Lady, responded:
Take, give me wine to drink,
take (this) cup in my hand,
(this) goblet in my right hand.
So Pūǵatu took, gave him wine to drink,
took [the cup] from his hand,
the goblet from his right hand.
YṬPN, the soldier of the Lady, responded:
From (this very) wine does ʾILʾA drink, the god
of the [lady],
the god who created tent–dwellings.
The hand that struck down valiant ʾAqhatu
shall strike down by the thousands the enemies of the lady.
[He who] assigned workmen (to make) tents
[…]
[…] his/her heart like a serpent […]
A second time she served the mixture,
served him drink […]
Colophon
Here is where to resume the story.
REFERENCES
Text: CTA 17–19; KTU 1.17-19. Translations and studies: Aitken 1990; Albright 1945; 1953; Albright and Mendenhall 1942; Arnaud 1985–86; Caquot 1985; Caquot, Sznycer, and Herdner 1974; Clifford 1972; Dijkstra and de Moor 1975; Dressler 1984; Driver 1956; Elliott 1991; Gibson 1977; Gordon 1977; Greenfield 1967; Herdner 1963; Hillers 1973; Hoffner 1964; Margalit 1983; 1984; 1989; de Moor 1968; 1987; Nougayrol 1970; del Olmo Lete 1981; Pardee 1977:53–56; 1987; 1988a; 1989–90; 1995; Parker 1989; Pitard 1994a; 1994b; Rainey 1971; Renfroe 1986; van Soldt 1989; Tropper 1989; Tsevat 1971; Virolleaud 1936b; Walls 1992; Watson 1976; 1989a; 1990a; Xella 1976:61–91.
2. HISTORIOGRAPHY
UGARITIC KING LIST (1.104)
K. Lawson Younger, Jr.
This poorly preserved, enigmatic tablet (RS 24.257 = Ugaritica5.5 = KTU 1.113) contains a retrograde list of the kings of Ugarit in two columns on its verso. The very broken recto seems to preserve some sort of ritual, consistently alternating between two musical instruments (tp “a tambourine/drum” and ṯlb “a flute) and the word lnʿm “for the Pleasant One.”
What the exact relationship is (if any) between the recto and the verso has fueled debate over the tablet’s genre. Moreover, the use of the divine determinative ilu before each royal name in the verso has also caused some scholars to see affiliations with a cult of the royal ancestors at Ugarit. For the most recent discussions see Lewis 1989:47–52; del Olmo Lete 1986; Pardee 1988a:165–178; 1996:276; and Schmidt 1994:67–71.
RECTO
1 […] and his tambourine is high
[…] the peoples, for the Pleasant One
[…] and the flutes are high
[…] for the Pleasant One.
5 […] and his tambourine is high
[…] for the Pleasant One.
[…] arrive
[…] the flutes are high
[… for the Pl]easant One.
10 […] the Pleasant One.
[ ]x[ ]
…
VERSO
Left
Right
(12´) [
] [ ]
(13´) [
the divine ʿAmmiṯtamru4
(14´) [
the divine Ni]qmepaʿ
(15´) [
the divine ʿAmmu<rā>piʾ
(16´) [ ]
the divine ʾIbirānu
(17´) [ ]
the divine Yaʿḏuraddu
(18´) [ ]
the divine Niqmepaʿ
(19´) [ ]❐p❒
the divine ʾIbirānu
(20´) [ ]d[
the divine ʿAmmurāpiʾ
(21´) [the divine Niq]mepaʿ*
[the divine] Niqmepaʿ
(22´) [the divine ʿAmmi]ṯtamru
the divine ʾIbirā[nu]
(23´) [ ]
the divine Niqmepaʿ
(24´) [ ]
the divine ʾIbirānu
(25´) [ ]
the divine Niqmaddu
(26´) [ ]❐q❒
the divine Yaqaru
REFERENCES
KTU2:128–129; TUAT 1985 1:496–497; Aboud 1994:3–4; Kitchen 1977; Lewis 1989:47–52; del Olmo Lete 1986a; Pardee 1988a:165–178; 1996; Schmidt 1994:67–71; de Tarragon 1980; Virolleaud 1968; Wilson 1977; Xella 1981.
3. REPHAʾIM TEXTS
THE PATRONS OF THE UGARITIC DYNASTY (KTU 1.161) (1.105)
Baruch A. Levine, Jean-Michel de Tarragon, Anne Robertson
KTU 1.161 is a canonical liturgy, commemorating the accession of the last king of Ugarit, Ammurapi (III), and his queen, Tharyelli. It was first published by Caquot (1975), working only from a cast of the uncleaned tablet. Subsequently, six photographs appeared in Ugaritica7, plates VII-IX. Bordeuil and Pardee (1982) prepared a new edition of KTU 1.161 based, for the first time, on a careful examination of the tablet in Aleppo. It is this version that serves as the basis for the translation presented here.
INTRODUCTION: The Title (line 1)
The written record of the sacred celebration [in honor] of the Patrons:a
The Invitation to the Rephaim (lines 2–10)
You have summoned the Rephaimb of the netherworld;
You have commanded the Council of the Didanites!
Summon ULKN, Raph[a!
Summon TRMN, Raph[a!
Summon SDN-w-RDN, [Rapha!]
Summon ṮR-ʿLLMN, [Rapha!]
[All] summon the most ancient Rephaim!
You have summoned the Rephaim of the netherworld!
You have commanded the Council of the Didanites!
The Invitation to Departed Kings (lines 11–12)
Summon Ammishtramru, the King!
Summon, as well, Niqmaddu, the King!
The Lamentation (lines 13–17)
O, throne of Niqmaddu — weep!
Let his footstool shed tears!
It front of it — let the royal table weep;
Let it swallow its tears.
Tears, and [more] tears; many tears!
Shapash is Sent to Locate the Departed Kings in the Netherworld (lines 18–26),
Shine bright, O Shapash!
Shine bright, O great luminary!
On high Shapash cries out:
After your lord, from the throne;
After your lord, to the netherworld descend!
To the netherworld descend;
And go down low into the earth.
Below is SDN-w-RDN;
Below is ṮR-KLLMN;
Below are the most ancient Rephaim.
Below is Ammishtamru, the King;
Below is Niqmaddu, the King, as well.
Sacrifices in Honor of the New King (lines 27–30)
Once — offer a benefaction.
A second time — offer a benefaction.
A third time — offer a benefaction.
A fourth time — offer a benefaction.
A fifth time — offer a benefaction.
A sixth time — offer a benefaction.
A seventh time — offer a benefaction.
You shall present a bird.
Blessings (lines 31–34)
Hail!
Hail, Ammurapi!
And hail to his household!
Hail, [Tha]ryelli!
Hail to her household!
Hail, Ugarit!
Hail to her gates!
REFERENCES
Text: KTU 1.161; Ugaritica5 vii; Studies: Astour 1973; Bordreuil and Pardee 1982; Buccellati 1966; Caquot 1975; Greenfield and Porten 1982; Healey 1978; Kitchen 1977; Lane 1874; Laroche 1976–77; Levine and de Tarragon 1984; de Moor 1976; Pitard 1978; Pope 1977a.
C. INDIVIDUAL FOCUS
1. INSTRUCTIONS
HIPPIATRIC TEXTS (1.106)
Chaim Cohen
The Ugaritic hippiatric texts, dating from the fourteenth to the twelfth centuries BCE, have been known to the scholarly world since 1934, when the first two fragmentary copies (here referred to as B,C) were published by C. Virolleaud. Only in 1968, however, when the best preserved copy (here referred to as A) was first published in Ugaritica V, did it become clear that all three texts were in fact copies of the same veterinary procedural (or professional instruction) text, dealing with the therapeutic treatment of sick horses and consisting of a title and ten (copies B and C: nine) structurally parallel sections, demarcated by the underscoring of the last line of each division. Since then, a fourth fragmentary text (here referred to as D) was published in KTU in 1976 and this has been followed by two modern critical editions of all four texts by Cohen and Sivan (1983) and Pardee (1985).2 Methodologically, these texts are among the most difficult of the Ugaritic texts to interpret since the language is highly technical and many of the terms are nowhere else extant in Ugaritic. On the other hand, the very clear tripartite structure of each of the ten sections (Symptoms, Remedy-Components and Their Preparation, The Administering of the Remedy [constant for all ten sections]) as well as the existence of four copies of the same text, provide much more textual and structural evidence than is usually available. A major comparative tool is provided by the occurrence of many of these technical terms (both symptoms and remedy-components) in Akkadian medical texts and plant and drug lists. The few extant Akkadian hippiatric passages and the classical Greek and Latin hippiatric texts have also been consulted.
The following translation refers to the “new revised composite text of UHT” established by C. Cohen which will appear in UF 28 together with extensive commentary (Cohen 1997).
Commas have been used in this translation only to separate the three parts of each section according to the formal tripartite structure of this text (see Cohen and Sivan 1983:10, 48–51).
Title (1)
Treatise concerning the well-beingb (health) of horses:
_________________
Section One (2–4)
If a horse roars,d a št-measure of the scorpion-like plant should be pulverized and liquifiedf either in a solution of dalīqātu-groats or of mundû-groats, and it (the remedy) should (then) be poured into his nose.
_________________
Section Two (5–6)
If a horse discharges/d a putrid liquid, the mēmētu-plant and a bṣql-measure of the ʿrgz-tree/plant should be pulverized together, and it (the remedy) should (then) be poured into his nose.
_________________
Section Three (7–8)
Or if a horse discharges/d a putrid liquid, grain and bitter almond should be pulverized together, and it (the remedy) should (then) be poured into his nose.
_________________
Section Four (9–11)
If a horse does not defecate or urinate, the sap of a št-measure of the qulqulliānu-tree/plant and a št-measure of the ʿrgz-tree/plant should be pulverized together, and it (the remedy) should (then) be poured into his nose.
_________________
Section Five (12–14)
If a horse is seized with “pain,” a št-measure of average quality mkšr and a št-measure of the šakirû-plant and the “fruit” of the lettuce plant should be pulverized together, and it (the remedy) should (then) be poured into his nose.
_________________
Section Six (15–17)
Or if a horse is seized with “pain,” the nīnû-plant and a št-measure of average quality mkšr and a št-measure of the urânu-plant of ḥmr-quality should be pulverized together, and it (the remedy) should (then) be poured into his nose.
_________________
Section Seven (18–19)
If a horse yrʾaš, a št-measure of the pillû/billû-plant of qṭ-quality should be pulverized, and it (the remedy) should (then) be poured into his nose.
_________________
{Section Eight (20–22)
Or if a horse [discharges/d a putrid liquid and is/was leth]argic (?), coriander from the hills {and a š[t-measure of … and] the leaves of […] should be pulverized [together, and it (the remedy) should (then) be po]ured [into his nose.]}
_________________
Section Nine (23–29)
Or if a horse roars, […] of the juniper-tree [and] the “fruit” of the ʿṯrb-tree/plant <and> the seed of the [bitter al]mond similar to l coriander [and (?) sim]ilar to fennel (?) [and] the mēmētu-plant and a št-measure of the nīnû-plant and the “fruit” of the abukkatu-plant and a š[t-measure of the sc]orpi[on-like plant] << (and) the mēmētu plant>> (?) and the “fruit” of the lettuce-plant and a [bṣq]l-measure of the urânu-plant of ḥmr-quality should be pulverized togeth[er], and it (the remedy) should (then) be poured into his nose.
_________________
Section Ten (30–32)
<Or> if <a horse> yrʾaš and ykhp incessantly, old fig-cakes and old raisinso and flour of groats should be pulverized together, and it (the remedy) should (then) be poured into his nose.
_________________
REFERENCES
Text: CTA 160–161 (B,C including copies and photos); UT 55–56 (B,C); Ugaritica5:625–627 – figures 16, 16A, 16B (Photo of A); KTU2 1.85; 1.71; 1.72; 1.97 (A,B,C,D); Cohen and Sivan 1983 – composite edition of lines 1–19, 30–32; Pardee 1985 – latest readings, copies and photos (A,B,C,D). Studies: Biggs 1990; Cohen 1983; 1997; Cohen and Sivan 1983; Fronzaroli 1975; Hallo 1991; Köcher BAM xiv-xvi; Mack-Fisher 1990; Pardee 1985; Stol 1979.
2. SCHOOL TEXTS
ABECEDARIES (1.107)
Aaron Demsky
The alphabet was invented in Canaan ca. 1700 BCE, during the Middle Bronze IIB period, a time of increased urbanization and cross cultural fertilization. This invention was probably the result of reflective thought of a local Canaanite scribe familiar with the scripts of the major powers, i.e., Akkadian cuneiform and most likely Egyptian hieroglyphic and hieratic writing. These latter scripts were logo-syllabic in nature, so that each sign represented a word/idea and/or a syllable thus creating a writing system of hundreds of signs. The alphabetic revolution was the radical reduction of graphemes to less than thirty in number. Once the consonantal signs could be memorized in a standard order this revolution in visual communication would have resounding effects on all aspects of society, religion and education in the ancient world. It would not be far-fetched to say that the abecedary, i.e., the conventional order of the letters, is the fundamental building block of western literacy.
There is a difference of opinion among scholars regarding the nature of the Semitic alphabet prior to its adoption by the Greeks who gave letter form to the vowels. There are those who argue the novelty of a true alphabet having reduced writing to a pure consonantal system (e.g., A. H. Gardiner, W. F. Albright, F. M. Cross, J. Naveh, A. R. Millard, A. Demsky). On the other hand, other maintain that the Semitic alphabet is actually a syllabic system of consonant plus any vowel (I. J. Gelb, G. R. Driver, S. Yeivin, W. W. Hallo). Whatever the case, the basic letter order is documented from Ugarit of the 14th century BCE, which probably indicates also the antiquity of the letter names and method of instruction.
1. The Order of the Letters
There are two basic systems for ordering the letters of the alphabet. The first and most familiar is generally called the Northwest Semitic order. It is found already in Ugaritic cuneiform and in the linear scripts used for Canaanite and Aramaic from which were derived the Greek, Latin and Etruscan forms in the west and classical Arabic in the south. It is this basic sequence which has given us the terms aleph-bet in Hebrew, alpha beta in Greek, abecedarium in Latin and abgedhawa in Arabic.
The second system is the so-called South Semitic order known from South Arabic inscriptions (5th century BCE) and from medieval Ethiopic (Geez) manuscripts. However, recent research has shown that this too was an alternate sequence known and practiced in the scribal schools of ancient Canaan. A. G. Lundin (1987b) deciphered this order on a 13th century BCE alphabetic cuneiform tablet discovered in the 1930’s at Tel Beth Shemesh. With the stabilization of the alphabet at the beginning of the Iron Age, the ABC order dominated and caused the second HLḤM sequence to be displaced to the periphery of the Semitic world, though there might have been some later contact between the two (Knauf 1985:204–206).
The Ugaritic abecedary with twenty-seven individual signs represents the full phonetic range of that language, which may have been also the original Proto-Canaanite alphabet (Lundin 1987a). Local scribes probably added three more signs at the end for greater clarity in writing other languages in use at Ugarit. Many complete and incomplete abecedaria have been found in Israel from the Iron Age down to the Roman period; they were written by professional writers as well as by semi-literates. Sometimes they were engraved on stone, even in the negative by seal cutters practicing their trade, sometimes they were written in ink on shards. For some it was a learning exercise and for others it was a way to pass time.
The Izbet Sartah ostracon (ca. 1200) is worth special attention for it is the oldest reduced twenty-two letter alphabet inscribed in the Proto-Canaanite script (Demsky 1977; 1986). This beginner’s exercise tablet, written from left to right, is also peculiar in that some of the letters are transposed: the heth precedes the zayin and the pe comes before the ʿain. While one might assume this to be a child’s sloppiness, the pe-ʿain sequence is found in the alphabetic acrostics of Lamentations 2, 3 and 4, as well as in the triple abecedary in the Hebrew script found at Kuntillet Ajrud (early 8th century BCE) indicating a contemporary secondary Israelite scribal tradition of ordering the letters.
The Greek alphabet reflects the conservative nature of a literate education in that it preserves the basic order of the Canaanite alphabet as well as the traditional (and the unintelligible) Semitic names. At the same time, it also demonstrates the ability of a recipient culture, especially a geographically distant, non-dependent one, to deviate from the norm in adapting the alphabet to its own phonetic stock, which in this case probably led to the innovative visualization of the vowels. As in the Ugaritic alphabet, the Greeks added additional letters at the end of the list.
The classical Arabic alphabet, derived from the twenty-two letter Aramaic through the Nabataean script (Healey 1990–91), was six letters short of its phonemic range. This difficulty was resolved by adding diacritical points to the available forms, similar to the shin/sin distinction in Hebrew. The Arabic alphabet was then reordered according to the external shape of the letters. Still one can discern the underlying influence of the traditional Aramaic abecedary when new forms appear, e.g., alf, ba, gim, dal … ʿyn, fa … kaf, lam, mim, nun … he, waw, ya and the use of the abgedhawa sequence to represent numerals.
The North Semitic abecedary and its derivatives
Ugaritic: ʾa b g ḫ d h w z ḥ ṭ y k š l m ḏ n ẓ s ʿ p ṣ q r ṯ ǵ t + ʾi ʾu s̀
Standard Canaanite: ʾ b g d h w z ḥ ṭ y k l m n s ʿ p ṣ q r š t
Izbet Sartah: ʾ b g d h w ḥ z ṭ y k l m n s p ʿ ṣ q r š t
Greek: Α Β Γ Δ Ε Ζ Η Θ Ι Κ Λ Μ Ν Ξ Ο Π Ρ Σ Τ + Υ Φ Χ Ψ Ω
Arabic: ʾ b t ṯ g ḥ ḫ d ḏ r z s š ṣ ḍ ṭ ẓ ʿ ġ f q k l m n h w y
The South Semitic abecedaries
South Arabic: h l ḥ m q w š r ġ/b t s k n ḫ ś f ʾ ʿ ḍ g d b/ġ ṭ z ḏ y ṯ ṣ/ẓ
Ethiopic: h l ḥ m š r s q b t ḫ n ʾ k w ʿ z y d g ṭ p ṣ ḍ f ps
2. The Letter Names
The names of the letters seem to be an integral part of the abecedary, preserving through a mnemonic ditty the traditional order. The letter sequence was not determined in antiquity by either similarity of shape or phonetic origins. In his decipherment of the Proto-Sinaitic script, A. H. Gardiner (1916) proposed the acrophonic principle where the pictographic form of the letter was chosen because it represented an object whose name began with the desired consonant, e.g., “house,” in Canaanite bet, represents the phoneme b. This would mean that the names go back to the very invention of the alphabet. Cross and Lambdin (1960) published an exercise tablet from Ugarit which gives the initial syllable in Akkadian cuneiform for the names of the alphabet. As they have shown these initial syllables correspond to the Canaanite letter names.
This observation has been challenged by W. W. Hallo (1958), who has argued on the basis of Isa 28:9–13 that the names were actually the consonant plus a helping sound like aw, e.g., waw, ṣaw, qaw, taw (cf. Greek mu, nu). Following this possibility, we might suggest that in certain scribal schools some of the names were composed by adding a t to the initial consonant, e.g., bet, ḥet, ṭet and Greek zeta or by seeking words that begin and end in the same consonant, e.g., waw, mem, nun and possibly *gag, *ṭiṭ *ṣiṣ (cf. in rabbinic literature the late names hehin, pepin, b. Šabb. 103b). It seems therefore that letter names were somewhat fluid, especially as the form of the signs became simplified and chronologically removed from the original pictograph.
The letter names of the Hebrew alphabet are first recorded in the Greek Septuagint of the alphabetic acrostic Psalm 119, reflecting the nomenclature of the third century BCE at the latest. An examination of the names will show two linguistic sources that probably reflect the adoption of the Aramaic script by the Jews no later than this century. We can determine the late non-Canaanite names either by the pronunciation of the diphthong (ʿain, zain) or by the choice of an Aramaic word instead of the Canaanite form preserved in the Greek alphabet, e.g., zain instead of zet or resh instead of ro (sh) and nun instead of nahash as in Ethiopic.
3. Exercises
Since learning the alphabet was a function of a formal curriculum, we can assume that there were different exercises for memorizing the order of the letters already at an early period. An exercise that is already documented in the sixth century BCE is the ATBaSh exercise which is based on the equal division of the twenty-two letters of the alphabet, correlating the first and last letter, the second and 21st letter and so on. Jeremiah (25:25, 26; 51:1, 41) uses this elementary school exercise to create audience participation in comprehending the intent of his prophesy by substituting the corresponding letters: ššk ⇔ bbl; lbkmy ⇔ kśdym; zmry for zmky ⇔ ʿylm (i.e., Elam).
For variety, the teachers devised the ALBaM exercise, where the first and twelfth letters, etc. were matched, e.g., ʾbg ⇔ lmn. In the Latin primary school one could therefore learn his abecedarium or the elementum, which gave rise to the term elementary (school) (Coogan 1974). Further variations and combinations were devised and are noted in the classical period for Hebrew (b. Šabb. 104), Greek (Jerome) and Latin (Quintilian).
4. Application of the Abecedary
In antiquity, the fixed abecedary created new opportunities for literary expression and memory aids especially in three areas:
a) the organization of information and the placing of objects in their proper order according to the alphabet. E. Puech (1980) has published a second century CE document that contains an abecedary in addition to an incomplete alphabetized list of personal names. It seems from Zech 6:10, 14 that the prophet and his audience also were using the alphabet to order and remember pertinent data already in the late 6th century BCE (Demsky 1981). Occasional inscriptions of letters of the alphabet found on the back of ivory pieces from Samaria or on stone gutters or pillars show that the alphabet had become knowledge of joiners and masons and their tool for facilitating their work.
b) aesthetics as expressed in writing alphabetic acrostic poetry. This literary technique allows the biblical poet to strive for completeness and totality (cf. meʾalef veʾad taw, b. Šabb 55a; b. ʿAbod. Zar.), as well as challenging the poet’s ability to express himself within the structural demands of the alphabet, which would be similar to composing a haiku or a sonnet. There is variation in the limited number of acrostic poems, for instance some are complete or partially incomplete and others are fragmentary (Nah 1:1–11; Pss 9–10). Furthermore, Lam 3 is a triple acrostic while Ps 119 is eightfold. It is possible that this literary form influenced the length of other compositions, limiting them to twenty-two verses, the number of the letters in the alphabet, as in Lam 5 (Brug 1990:290). The alphabetic acrostic might have been popular among learned members of the Wisdom School not only as a didactic method but also as a literary device to conclude their works as in Prov 31:10–31 and Sir 51 or to express the comprehensive nature of Torah (Ps 119). In this context, note Ceresko’s observations (1985) that the additional pe at the end of Pss 25 and 34 creates a subtle acrostic pattern alp, with the first and middle letters of these psalms, which spells not only the name of the first letter but also the verb “to teach” (see Job 33:33), or perhaps “to alphabetize.” Garsiel (1994) has shown another literary development in the biblical poets’ predilection to play on the conventional letter names.
c) express the mysterious and the magical or a reference to the divine, e.g., Alpha-Omega (Rev 1:8; 22:13) or the rabbinic statement (y. Sanh. 18a) that God’s personal seal reads ʾEmet, i.e., “truth,” which is composed of the first, last and (almost) middle letters of the alphabet (see Dornseiff 1925).
In a very perceptive proverb found at the end of the Syriac version of Ahiqar (Conybeare 1913:127), the author juxtaposed the school lesson in learning the alphabet with its potential for popular literacy. An unlikely but intuitively intelligent student — the wolf — is brought into the formal educational system including the teacher/master (rab), the school house (bet sfrʾa) and elementary curriculum ʾalf bet. The result of this meeting is that the wolf quickly recognizes the potential of the alphabet as a means of achieving his own goals, in this case in having a good meal of kid. While the teacher is still on the opening lesson of the first two letters, the wolf anticipates the next lesson by providing a word which includes the following two letters and one that indicates his personal aim in life.
“They brought him (the wolf) into the school house. His master said to him, ‘ʾAleph-Beth.’ The wolf said, ‘Gadyʾa’ ” (“the kid,” here used for the name of the third letter).
REFERENCES
Brug 1990; Ceresko 1985; Coogan 1974; Cross and Lambdin 1960; Demsky 1977; 1981; 1986; Dornseiff 1925; Gardiner 1916; Garsiel 1994; Hallo 1958; Healey 1990–91; Knauf 1985; Lundin 1987a; 1987b; Puech 1980.
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AKKADIAN CANONICAL COMPOSITIONS
A. DIVINE FOCUS
1. MYTHS
THE DESCENT OF ISHTAR TO THE UNDERWORLD (1.108)
Stephanie Dalley
The Akkadian story is first attested in Late Bronze Age texts, in both Babylonia and Assyria, and later from the palace library at Nineveh. It is a short composition of some 140 lines, and seems to end with ritual instructions for the taklimtu, an annual ritual known from Assyrian texts, which took place in the month of Dumuzi (Tammuz = June/July) and featured the bathing, anointing, and lying-in-state of a statue of Dumuzi in Nineveh, Arbela, Assur and Kalah. Weeping for Tammuz was observed in Jerusalem in the 6th century BCE according to Ezek 8:14.
The Sumerian version, The Descent of Inanna, is attested earlier, and is much longer, consisting of some 410 lines. It is a fuller, more detailed account, and shows clearly that Dumuzi periodically died and rose, causing seasonal fertility, a fact which had been doubted until 1963, when a newly published fragment disclosed the crucial evidence. This version contains no ritual or incantation. However, like the Akkadian story, it seems to represent the goddess as a cult statue, and it has been suggested that the goddess’s statue makes a ritual journey from Uruk, her home town, to Kutha, seat of Underworld deities.
There is an obvious similarity in basic theme to the Greek myth of Persephone, who was abducted by Hades. He periodically released her to her mother Demeter, thus causing fertility on earth to be seasonal, but of course there are many major differences between the Greek and the Akkadian myths.
Certain lines of text in The Descent of Ishtar are also found in Nergal and Ereshkigal and in Gilgamesh.
To Kurnugi, land of [no return],
Ishtar daughter of Sin was [determined] to go;
The daughter of Sin was determined to go
To the dark house, dwelling of Erkalla’s god,
To the house which those who enter cannot leave,
On the road where travelling is one-way only,
To the house where those who enter are deprived of light,
Where dust is their food, clay their bread.
They see no light, they dwell in darkness,
(10) They are clothed like birds, with feathers.
Over the door and the bolt, dust has settled.
Ishtar, when she arrived at the gate of Kurnugi,
Addressed here words to the keeper of the gate,
“Here gatekeeper, open your gate for me,
Open your gate for me to come in!
If you do not open the gate for me to come in,
I shall smash the door and shatter the bolt,
I shall smash the doorpost and overturn the doors,
I shall raise up the dead and they shall eat the living:
(20) The dead shall outnumber the living!”
The gatekeeper made his voice heard and spoke,
He said to great Ishtar,
“Stop, lady, do not break it down!
Let me go and report your words to queen Ereshkigal.”
The gatekeeper went in and spoke to [Ereshkigal],
“Here she is, your sister Ishtar […]
Who holds the great keppū-toy,
Stirs up the Apsu in Ea’s presence […]?”
When Ereshkigal heard this,
Her face grew livid as cut tamarisk,
(30) Her lips grew dark as the rim of a kunīnu-vessel.
“What brings her to me? What has incited her against me?
Surely not because I drink water with the Anunnaki,
I eat clay for bread, I drink muddy water for beer?
I have to weep for young men forced to abandon sweethearts.
I have to weep for girls wrenched from their lovers’ laps.
For the infant child I have to weep, expelled before its time.
Go, gatekeeper, open your gate to her.
Treat her according to the ancient rites.”
The gatekeeper went. He opened the gate to her.
(40) “Enter, my lady: may Kutha give you joy,
May the palace of Kurnugi be glad to see you.”
He let her in through the first door, but stripped off (and) took away the great crown on her head.
“Gatekeeper, why have you taken away the great crown on my head?”
“Go in, my lady. Such are the rites of the Mistress of Earth.”
He let her in through the second door, but stripped off (and) took away the rings in her ears.
“Gatekeeper, why have you taken away the rings in my ears?”
(50) “Go in, my lady. Such are the rites of the Mistress of Earth.”
He let her in through the third door, but stripped off (and) took away the beads around her neck.
“Gatekeeper, why have you taken away the beads around my neck?”
“Go in, my lady. Such are the rites of the Mistress of Earth.”
He let her in through the fourth door, but stripped off (and) took away the toggle-pins at her breast.
“Gatekeeper, why have you taken away the toggle-pins at my breast?”
“Go in, my lady. Such are the rites of the Mistress of Earth.”
He let her in through the fifth door, but stripped off (and) took away the girdle of birth-stones around her waist.
“Gatekeeper, why have you taken away the girdle of birthstones around my waist?”
“Go in, my lady. Such are the rites of the Mistress of Earth.”
He let her in through the sixth door, but stripped off (and) took away the bangles on her wrists and ankles.
“Gatekeeper, why have you taken away the bangles on my wrists and ankles?”
“Go in, my lady. Such are the rites of the Mistress of Earth.”
(60) He let her in through the seventh door, but stripped off (and) took away the proud garment of her body.
“Gatekeeper, why have you taken away the proud garment of my body?”
“Go in, my lady. Such are the rites of the Mistress of Earth.”
As soon as Ishtar went down to Kurnugi,
Ereshkigal looked at her and trembled before her.
Ishtar did not deliberate (?), but threatened her.
Ereshkigal made her voice heard and spoke,
Addressed her words to Namtar her vizier,
“Go, Namtar [ ] of my [ ]
Send out against her sixty diseases [ ] Ishtar;
(70) Disease of the eyes to her [eyes],
Disease of the arms to her [arms],
Disease of the feet to her [feet],
Disease of the heart to her [heart],
Disease of the head [to her head],
To every part of her and to [ ].”
After Ishtar the mistress of (?) [ had gone down to Kurnugi],
No bull mounted a cow, [no donkey impregnated a jenny],
No young man impregnated a girl [in the street (?)],
The young man slept in his private room,
(80) The girl slept in the company of her friends.
Then Papsukkal, vizier of the great gods, hung his head, his face [became gloomy];
He wore mourning clothes, his hair was unkempt.
Dejected (?), he went and wept before Sin his father,
His tears flowed freely before king Ea.
“Ishtar has gone down to the Earth and has not come up again.
As soon as Ishtar went down to Kurnugi
No bull mounted a cow, no donkey impregnated a jenny,
No young man impregnated a girl in the street,
The young man slept in his private room,
(90) The girl slept in the company of her friends.”
Ea, in his wise heart, created a person.
He created Good-looks the playboy.
“Come, Good-looks, set your face towards the gate of Kurnugi.
The seven gates of Kurnugi shall be opened before you.
Ereshkigal shall look at you and be glad to see you.
When she is relaxed, her mood will lighten.
Get her to swear the oath by the great gods.
Raise your head, pay attention to the waterskin,
Saying, ‘Hey, my lady, let them give me the waterskin, that I may drink water from it.’ ”
(And so it happened. But)
(100) When Ereshkigal heard this,
She struck her thigh and bit her finger.
“You have made a request of me that should not have been made!
Come, Good-looks, I shall curse you with a great curse.
I shall decree for you a fate that shall never be forgotten.
Bread (gleaned [?]) from the city’s ploughs shall be your food,
The city drains shall be your only drinking place,
The shade of a city wall your only standing place,
Threshold steps your only sitting place,
The drunkard and the thirsty shall slap your cheek.”
Ereshkigal made her voice heard and spoke;
(110) She addressed her words to Namtar her vizier,
“Go, Namtar, knock (?) at Egalgina,
Decorate the threshold steps with coral,
Bring the Anunnaki out and seat (them) on golden thrones,
Sprinkle Ishtar with the waters of life and
conduct her into my presence.”
Namtar went, knocked at Egalgina,
Decorated the threshold steps with coral,
Brought out the Anunnaki, seated (them) on golden thrones,
Sprinkled Ishtar with the waters of life and brought her to her (sister).
He let her out through the first door, and gave back to her the proud garment of her body.
(120) He let her out through the second door, and gave back to her the bangles for her wrists and ankles.
He let her out through the third door, and gave back to her the girdle of birth stones around her waist.
He let her out through the fourth door, and gave back to her the toggle pins at her breast.
He let her out through the fifth door, and gave back to her the beads around her neck.
He let her out through the sixth door, and gave back to her the rings for her ears.
He let her out through the seventh door, and gave back to her the great crown for her head.
“Swear that (?) she has paid you her ransom, and give her back (in exchange) for him.
For Dumuzi, the lover of her youth.
Wash (him) with pure water, anoint him with sweet oil,
Clothe him in a red robe, let the lapis lazuli pipe play (?).
(130) Let party-girls raise a loud lament (?).”
Then Belili tore off (?) her jewelry,
Her lap was filled with eyestones.
Belili heard the lament for her brother, she struck the jewelry [from her body],
The eyestones with which the front of the wild cow was filled.
“You shall not rob me (forever) of my onlybrother!
On the day when Dumuzi comes back up, (and) the lapis lazuli pipe and the carnelian ring come up with him,
(When) male and female mourners come up with him,
The dead shall come up and smell the incense offering.”
(3 lines missing)
REFERENCES
Text: Borger BAL2 1:95–104, 2:340–343. Studies: Buccellati 1982; Dalley 1989:154–162; Ebeling 1949; George 1985; Klein 1983; Attridge and Oden 1976; Kilmer 1971; Lambert 1969b.
NERGAL AND ERESHKIGAL
(standard Babylonian Version) (1.109)
Stephanie Dalley
Two very different versions of this story are extant. The earlier one was found at Tell el-Amarna in Egypt, dating from the fifteenth or fourteenth centuries BCE, and is told in a highly abbreviated manner in about ninety lines. Nergal visits the Underworld accompanied by demons, seizes the throne of Ereshkigal, queen of the Underworld, by force, and remains thereafter as king.
The version known from Sultantepe of the seventh century BCE and from Uruk in the Late Babylonian period is much longer, consisting of perhaps 750 lines. In this story Nergal makes two visits to the Underworld, and takes down with him not demons but a special chair or throne. The meaning of the chair may be explained by reference to a particular piece of furniture called a “ghost’s chair” in lexical texts; its purpose is explained in a ritual text as preventing seizure by ghosts:
If a man is chosen for death, and a ghost has seized him, you must purify everything, … place a bread ration before Shamash, Ea, and Marduk, threefold; scatter dates, flour, set up three adagurru-vessels; set up three censers with aromatics, scatter all kinds of cereals. You must put down a chair to the left of the offerings for the ghost of his kin, …
Thus, Nergal takes the chair down in an attempt to ensure that he can escape from the Underworld and elude death.
Both myths share the same basic theme: that the gods hold a banquet and, since Ereshkigal as queen of the Underworld cannot come up to join them, she sends her vizier to fetch a portion for her. Nergal behaves disrespectfully to the vizier, and for the insult to Ereshkigal he must be punished by her. He ends up as her husband.
It might appear that this myth records the transition of rule in the Underworld from a solitary female deity to a pair. However, Nergal is called “the Ellil of the Netherworld” in a composition from the late third or early second millennium, so it may be preferable to ascribe to the myth a different purpose, such as harmonizing two separate traditions. No Sumerian version of the story is known.
Nergal’s ability to travel between heaven and the Underworld may be related to a major event in Phoenician religion. The name of Melqart, chief god of Tyre, is a Phoenician translation of the Sumerian name Nergal, and they are thus very closely assimilated. There is now evidence that Melqart was a dying and rising god, although the precise timing of events during the ritual of his death and resurrection has still to be established. Possible Phoenician influence upon Nergal and Ereshkigal is found in the use of the “plural of majesty,” in referring to Nergal as “gods.”
(SBV i) [About 4 lines missing?]
[Anu made his voice heard and spoke, he addressed his words to Kakka],
[“Kakka, I shall send you to Kurnugi].
You must speak thus to Ereshkigal […],
Saying ‘It is impossible for you to come up].
(10´) [In your year you cannot come up to see us]
[And it is impossible for us to go down].
[In our month(s) we cannot go down to see you].
[Let your messenger come]
[And take from the table, let him accept a present for you].
[I shall give something to him to present to you].’ ”
[Kakka went down the long stairway of heaven].
[When he reached the gate of Ereshkigal (he said)],
[“Gatekeeper, open] the gate to me!”
[“Kakka, come] in, and may the gate bless you.”
(20´) He let the god Kakka in through the first gate,
He let the god Kakka in through the second gate,
He let the god Kakka in through the third gate,
He let the god Kakka in through the fourth gate,
He let the god Kakka in through the fifth gate,
He let the god Kakka in through the sixth gate,
He let the god Kakka in through the seventh gate.
He entered into her spacious courtyard,
He knelt down and kissed the ground in front of her.
He straightened up, stood and addressed her,
(30´) “Anu your father sent me
To say, ‘It is impossible for you to go up;
In your year you cannot go up to see us,
And it is impossible for us to go down;
In our month we cannot go down to see you.
Let your messenger come
And take from the table, let him accept a present for you.
I shall give something to him to present to you.’ ”
Ereshkigal made her voice heard and spoke, she addressed her words to Kakka,
“O messenger of Anu our father, you who have come to us,
(40´) May peace be with Anu, Ellil, and Ea, the great gods.
May peace be with Nammu and Nash, the pure god (desse)s.
May peace be with the husband of the Lady of Heaven.
May peace be with Ninurta, [champion] in the land.”
Kakka made his voice heard and spoke, he addressed his words to Ereshkigal
“Peace is indeed with Anu, Ellil, and Ea, the great gods.
Peace is indeed with Nammu and Nash the pure.
Peace is indeed with the husband of the Lady of Heaven.
Peace is indeed with Ninurta, champion in the land.”
Kakka made his voice heard and spoke, he addressed his words to Ereshkigal,
(50´) “[ ] may be well with you.”
Ereshkigal made her voice heard and spoke, she addressed her words to her vizier Namtar,
“O Namtar my vizier, I shall send you to the heaven of our father Anu.
Namtar, go up the long stairway of heaven.
Take from the table and accept a present (for me).
Whatever Anu gives to you, you must present to me.”
[about 16 lines missing]
(ii) [about 10 lines missing]
Ea addresses Nergal
[…]
“[When he arrived […]
[…] path […]
The gods are kneeling together before him.
The great gods, the lords of destiny.
For it is he who controls the rites, controls the rites of […]
The gods who dwell within Erkalla.
Why do you not kneel down before him?
I keep winking at you,
(10´) But you pretend not to realize,
And …
[6 lines missing]
(Nergal addresses Ea)
[…] I will rise to my feet
[…] you said.
(20´) […] will double it.”
When Ea heard this he said to himself,
“…”
(Then) Ea made his voice heard and spoke, he addressed his words to Nergal.
“My son, you shall go on the journey you want (to make), … grasp (?) a sword in your hand.
Go down to the forest of mēsu–trees.
Cut down mēsu–trees, tiāru–trees, and juniper!
Break off kanaktu–trees and simberru–trees.”
When [Nergal] heard this, he took an axe up in his hand,
Drew the sword from his belt,
Went down to the forest of mēsu–trees,
Cut down mēsu–trees, tiāru–trees, and juniper,
(30´) Broke off kanaktu–trees and simberru–trees,
[ ] and Ningišzida.
He painted it with gypsum [… as a substitute for silver],
Painted it with yellow paste and red paste as a substitute for gold,
Painted it with blue glaze as a substitute for lapis lazuli.
The work was finished, the chair complete.
Then he (Ea) called out and laid down instructions for him,
“My son, (about) the journey which you want to make: from the moment you arrive,
[Follow whatever instructions [ I give you].
From the moment they bring a chair to you,
Do not go to it, do not sit upon it.
(40´) (When) the baker brings you bread, do not go to it, do not eat the bread.
(When) the butcher brings you meat, do not go to it, do not eat the meat.
(When) the brewer brings you beer, do not go to it, do not drink the beer.
(When they) bring you a foot bath, do not go to it, do not wash your feet.
(When) she (Ereshkigal) has been to the bath
And dressed herself in a fine dress,
Allowing you to glimpse her body …
You must not [do that which] men and women [do]”
Nergal […]
[about 12 lines missing]
Nergal set his face towards Kurnugi,
To the dark house, dwelling of Erkalla’s god,
To the house which those who enter cannot leave,
(iii) On the road where travelling is one way only,
To the house where those who enter are deprived of light,
Where dust is their food, clay their bread.
They are clothed, like birds, with feathers.
They see no light, they dwell in darkness.
[…]
[… they moan] (?) like doves.
[…]
[The gatekeeper opened his mouth and addressed his words to Nergal,
(10´) “I must take back a report about the [god (?) standing] at the door.”
The gatekeeper entered and addressed his words to Ereshkigal,
“My lady, a […] has come to see us.
[…] who will identify him.”
[a few lines missing]
Ereshkigal made her voice heard and spoke to Namtar.
[3 lines missing, comprising Ereshkigal’s speech]
[Namtar replies:]
“Let me identify him […]
Let me … him at the outer gate.
Let me bring back to my lord [a description of him.”
(20´) Namtar went and looked at Erra in the shadow of the door.
Namtar’s face went as livid as cut tamarisk.
His lips grew dark as the rim of a kunīnu–vessel.
Namtar went and addressed his lady,
“My lady, when you sent me to your father,
When I entered the courtyard of Anu
All the gods were kneeling, humbled [before him (?)]
All the gods of the land were kneeling [humbled before him.]
‘The gods’ rose to their feet in my presence.
Now ‘they’ have gone down to Kurnugi.”
(30´) Ereshkigal made her voice heard and spoke, she addressed her words to Namtar,
“My dear Namtar, you should not seek Ellil-power
Nor should you desire to do heroic deeds.
(What,) come up and sit on the throne of the royal dais?
You, perform the judgments of the broad Earth?
Should I go up to the heaven of Anu my father?
Should I eat the bread of the Anunnaki?
Should I drink the water of the Anunnaki?
Go and bring the god [into my presence!]”
Namtar went and let in ‘the gods,’ Erra.
He let Nergal in through the first, the gate of Nedu.
He let Nergal in through the second, the gate of Kishar.
He let Nergal in through the third, the gate of Endashurimma.
(40´) He let Nergal in through the fourth, the gate of Enuralla.
He let Nergal in through the fifth, the gate of Endukuga.
He let Nergal in through the sixth, the gate of Endushuba.
He let Nergal in through the seventh, the gate of Ennugigi.
He came into the broad courtyard,
And he knelt down, kissed the ground in front of her.
He straightened up, stood and addressed her,
“Anu your father sent me [to see you],
Saying, ‘Sit down on [that] throne,
Judge the cases [of the great gods],
(50´) The great gods who live within Erkalla!’ ”
As soon as they brought him a throne
(He said to himself) “Don’t go to it!” and did not sit on it.
(When) the baker brought him bread, “Don’t go to it!” and did not eat the bread.
(When) the butcher brought him meat, “Don’t go to it!” and did not eat his meat.
(When) the brewer brought him beer, “Don’t go to it!” and did not drink his beer.
(When) they brought him a footbath, “Don’t go to it!” and did not wash his feet.
(When) she went to the bath
And dressed herself in a fine dress
And allowed him to catch a glimpse of her body,
(60´) He [resisted] his heart’s [desire to do what] men and women [do].
[about 10 lines missing]
(iv) [3 lines fragmentary]
Nergal […]
She went to the bath
And dressed herself in a fine dress
And allowed him to catch a glimpse of her body.
He [gave in to] his heart’s [desire to do what men and women do].
The two embraced each other
(10´) And went passionately to bed.
They lay there, queen Ereshkigal and Erra, for a first day and a second day.
They lay there, queen Ereshkigal and Erra, for a third day and a fourth day.
They lay there, queen Ereshkigal and Erra, for a fifth day and a sixth day.
When the seventh day arrived,
Nergal, without […]
Took away after him […]
“Let me go, and my sister […]
Do not make tremble […]
Let me go now, and I will return to Kurnugi [ (later)].”
(20´) Her mouth turned dark (?) (with rage) […]
Nergal went […]
[…] addressed his speech to the gatekeeper,
“Ereshkigal your lady sent me,
Saying, ‘I am sending you to the heaven of Anu our father,’
So let me be allowed out! The message […].”
Nergal came up the long stairway of heaven.
When he arrived at the gate of Anu, Ellil, and Ea,
Anu, Ellil, and Ea saw him and (said),
“The son of Ishtar has come back to us,
(30´) She (Ereshkigal) will search for him and […].
Ea his father must sprinkle him with spring water, and bareheaded,
Blinking and cringing let him sit in the assembly of all gods.”
Ereshkigal […]
To the bath […]
[…]
Her body […]
[…]
She called out […]
“The chair […]
Sprinkle the room with the water [of ]
(40´) Sprinkle the room with the water [of ]
Sprinkle the room with the water [of ]
The […] of the two daughters of Lamaštu (?) and Enmešarra,
Sprinkle with the waters of […]
The messenger of Anu our father who came to see us
Shall eat our bread and drink our water.”
Namtar made his voice heard and spoke,
Addressed his words to Ereshkigal his lady,
“The messenger of Anu our father who came to see us —
Before daylight he disappeared!”
Ereshkigal cried out aloud, grievously,
(50´) Fell from the throne to the ground,
Then straightened up from the ground.
Her tears flowed down her cheeks.
“Erra, the lover of my delight —
I did not have enough delight with him before he left!
Erra, the lover of my delight —
I did not have enough delight with him before he left.”
Namtar made his voice heard and spoke, addressed his words to Ereshkigal,
“Send me to Anu your father, and let me arrest that god!
[Let me take him to you,] that he may kiss you again!”
(v) Ereshkigal made her voice heard and spoke,
Addressed her words to Namtar her vizier,
“Go, Namtar, [you must speak to Anu, Ellil, and Ea!]
Set your face towards the gate of Anu, Ellil, and Ea,
To say, ever since I was a child and a daughter,
I have not known the playing of other girls,
I have not known the romping of children.
That god whom you sent to me and who has impregnated me — let him sleep with me again!
Send that god to us, and let him spend the night with me as my lover!
I am unclean, and I am not pure enough to perform the judging of the great gods,
The great gods who dwell within Erkalla.
If you do not send that god to me
(10) According to the rites of Erkalla and the great Earth
I shall raise up the dead, and they will eat the living.
I shall make the dead outnumber the living!”
Namtar came up the long stairway of heaven.
When he arrived at the gate of Anu, Ellil, and Ea, Anu, Ellil, and Ea saw him, and (said),
“What have you come for, Namtar?”
“Your daughter sent me,
To say, ‘Ever since I was a child and a daughter,
I have not known the playing of other girls,
(20) I have not known the romping of children.
That god whom you sent to me and who has impregnated me — let him sleep with me again!
Send that god to us, and let him spend the night with me as my lover!
I am unclean, and I am not pure enough to perform the judging of the great gods,
The great gods who dwell within Erkalla.
If you do not send that god to me,
I shall raise up the dead, and they will eat the living!
I shall make the dead outnumber the living!’ ”
Ea made his voice heard and spoke, addressed his words to Namtar,
“Enter, Namtar, the court of Anu,
(30) [Search out your wrongdoer and bring him!].”
When he entered the court of Anu,
All the gods were kneeling humbled [before him],
[All] the gods of the land were kneeling [humbled before him].
He went straight up to one, but did not recognize that god,
Went straight up to a second and a third, but did not recognize that god either.
Namtar went (away), and addressed his words to his lady,
“My lady, about your sending me up to the heaven of Anu your father:
My lady, there was only one god who sat bareheaded, blinking and cringing at the assembly of all the gods.”
“Go, seize that god and bring him to me!
(40) (I expect) Ea his father sprinkled him with spring water,
And he is sitting in the assembly of all the gods bareheaded, blinking and cringing.”
Namtar came up the long stairway of heaven.
When he reached the gate of Anu, Ellil, and Ea,
Anu, Ellil, and Ea saw him and (said),
“What have you come for, Namtar?”
“Your daughter sent me,
To say, ‘Seize that god and bring him to me.’ ”
“Then enter, Namtar, the courtyard of Anu, and
Search out your wrongdoer and take him.”
He went straight up to one god, but did not recognize him,
(50) Went straight up to a second and third, but did not recognize him either.
[Then X] made his voice heard and spoke, [addressed his words] to Ea,
“Let Namtar, the messenger who has come to us,
Drink our water, wash, and anoint himself.”
[break of about 15 lines]
(vi)“He is not to strip off […]
Erra, […]
I shall […].”
Namtar [made his voice heard and addressed his words to Erra],
“Erra, […]
All the rites of the great Underworld […]
When you go from […]
You shall carry the chair […]
You shall carry […]
(10) You shall carry […]
You shall carry […]
You shall carry […]
You shall carry […]
[…]
[Do not grapple with him (?) lest] he bind (?) your chest.”
[Erra to]ok to heart [the speech of Namtar].
He […] oiled his strap and slung his bow.
Nergal went down the long stairway of heaven.
When he arrived at the gate of Ereshkigal (he said (?)),
(20) “Gatekeeper, open [the gate for me (?)]!”
He struck down Nedu, the doorman [of the first] gate, and did not let him gr[apple with him (?)].
He struck down the second [doorman] (and did not let him grapple with him).
He struck down the third [doorman] (and did not let him grapple with him).
He struck down the fourth [doorman] (and did not let him grapple with him).
He struck down the fifth [doorman] (and did not let him grapple with him).
He struck down the sixth [doorman] (and did not let him grapple with him).
He struck down the seventh [doorman] (and did not let him grapple with him).
He entered her wide courtyard,
(30) And went up to her and laughed.
He seized her by her hairdo,
And [pull]ed (?) her from [the throne].
He seized her by her tresses
[…]
The two embraced each other
And went passionately to bed.
They lay there, queen Ereshkigal and Erra, for a
first day and a second day.
They lay there, queen Ereshkigal and Erra for a third day.
They lay there, queen Ereshkigal and Erra, for a fourth day.
(40) They lay there, queen Ereshkigal and Erra, for a fifth day.
They lay there, queen Ereshkigal and Erra, for a sixth day
When the seventh day arrived,
Anu made his voice heard and spoke,
Addressed his words to Kakka, his vizier,
“Kakka, I shall send you to Kurnugi,
To the home of Ereshkigal who dwells within Erkalla,
To say, ‘That god, whom I sent to you,
Forever […]
Those above […]
(50) Those below […]
[break, about 20–25 lines missing to end]
REFERENCES
Gurney 1960; Hunger 1976: no. 1; Dalley 1989:163–177.
NERGAL AND ERESHKIGAL
(Amarna Version) (1.110)
Stephanie Dalley
When the gods organized a banquet,
They sent a messenger
To their sister Ereshkigal.
“We cannot come down to you,
And you cannot come up to us.
So send someone to fetch a share of the food for you!”
Ereshkigal sent Namtar her vizier,
“Go up, Namtar, to high heaven!”
He went into [where] the gods were [sitting],
(10) And they [bowed (?)] and greeted Namtar,
The messenger of their eldest sister.
They bowed respectfully (?) when they saw him and …
The high gods […]
[…] food for the goddess his mistress.
[…] wept and was overcome.
[…] the journey (?)
[about 6 lines missing]
Ea […]
Went [to Namtar and] sent (him) back.
“Go and [tell] my words to [our] sister.
She will say, ‘Where (?) is the one who did not rise to his feet in the presence of my messenger?
Bring him to me for his death (?), that I may kill him!’ ”
[And so it happened]
Namtar came (back) and spoke to the gods,
The gods summoned him and discussed the death with him.
(30) “Look for the god who did not rise to his feet in your presence,
And take him before your mistress!”
Namtar counted them. The last god was crouching down.
“That god who did not rise to his feet in your presence — he is not here!”
Then Namtar went and gave his report, (saying):
“[My mistress, I went and counted] them.
The last god [was crouching down].
[The god who did not rise to his feet in my presence] was not there.”
[Ereshkigal made her voice heard],
[And addressed Namtar] her messenger,
(40) “[…] month.”
[…] Ea, honored lord.
“Identify the one,” […] to the hand of [Ea].
“Take (him) to Ereshkigal!” He was wee[ping]
Before his father Ea: “He will see me!
“He will not let me stay alive!” “Don’t be afraid […]
I shall give to you seven and seven [demons]
To go with you: …, …, …, Flashes–of–Lightning,
Bailiff, Croucher, Expulsion, Wind,
Fits, Staggers, Stroke, Lord-of-the-Roof, Feverhot, Scab […]
With you […] door
(50) Ereshkigal will call out: ‘Doorkeeper, […] your door.’
[You must say]
‘Loosen the thong, that I may enter into the presence of your mistress,
Ereshkigal. I have been sent!’ ” The doorkeeper went
And said to Namtar: “One god is standing at the entrance of the door,
Come, inspect him and let him enter.” Namtar came out
And saw him and gladly: “[Wait (?)] here!” He said
To his mistress: “My lady, here is the god who in previous
Months had vanished (?), and who did not rise to his feet in my presence!”
(60) “Bring him in. As soon as he comes, I
shall kill him!”
Namtar came out and […], “Come in, my lord,
To your sister’s house and … .”
Nergal [said], “You should be glad to see me.
[…] Nergal […]
[2 lines missing]
… at the third, Flashes-of-Lightning at the fourth.
Bailiff at the fifth, Croucher at the sixth, Expulsion
(70) At the seventh, Wind at the eighth, Fits
At the ninth, Staggers at the tenth, Stroke
At the eleventh, Lord–of–the–Roof at the twelfth,
Feverhot at the thirteenth, Scab at the fourteenth
Door, he managed to seal her in (?). In the
forecourt he cut off
Namtar. He gave his troops orders: “Let the doors
Be opened! Now I shall race past (?) you!”
Inside the house, he seized Ereshkigal
By her hair, pulled her from the throne
To the ground, intending to cut off her head.
(80) “Don’t kill me, my brother! Let me tell you something.”
Nergal listened to her and relaxed his grip, he wept
and was overcome (when she said),
“You can be my husband, and I can be your wife.
I will let you seize
Kingship over the wide Earth! I will put the tablet
Of wisdom in your hand! You can be master,
I can be mistress.” Nergal listened to this speech of hers,
And seized her and kissed her. He wiped away her tears.
“What have you asked of me? After so many months,
It shall certainly be so!”
REFERENCES
Knudtzon 1915; Dalley 1989:178–181.
EPIC OF CREATION (1.111)
(Enūma Elish)
Benjamin R. Foster
The so-called epic of Creation preserves a relatively late Babylonian conception of the creation of the physical world (including humanity), but its real focus is on the elevation of Marduk to the top of the pantheon in return for taking up the cause of the embattled gods, who build his great temple of Esagila in Babylon in recognition of his leadership. The composition could therefore be as readily called “The Exaltation of Marduk.” As such it provides a parallel of sorts to the exaltation of Yahweh as celebrated by Moses and Miriam in the Song of the Sea (Exodus 15), and the subsequent erection of the Tabernacle in the Wilderness (Hallo and van Dijk 1968 ch. 6; Mann 1977; Hurowitz 1992). Unique to the epic is its denouement, in which Marduk is acclaimed by fifty names and these are given learned explanations or etymologies (Bottéro 1977). [WWH]
Tablet I
(1) When on high no name was given to heaven,
Nor below was the netherworld called by name,
Primeval Apsu was their progenitor,
And matrix–Tiamat was she who bore them all,
(5) They were mingling their waters together,
No cane brake was intertwined nor thicket matted close.
When no gods at all had been brought forth,
None called by names, none destinies ordained,
Then were the gods formed within the (se two).
(10) Lahmu and Lahamu were brought forth, were called by name.
When they had waxed great, had grown up tall,
Anshar and Kishar were formed, greater than they,
They grew lengthy of days, added years to years.
Anu their firstborn was like his forebears,
(15) Anshar made Anu, his offspring, his equal.
Then Anu begot his own image Nudimmud,
Nudimmud was he who dominated (?) his forebears:
Profound in wisdom, acute of sense, he was massively strong,
Much mightier than his grandfather Anshar,
(20) No rival had he among the gods his brethren.
The divine brethren banded together,
Confusing Tiamat as they moved about in their stir,
Roiling the vitals of Tiamat,
By their uproar distressing the interior of the Divine Abode.
(25) Apsu could not reduce their clamor,
But Tiamat was silent before them.
Their actions were noisome to her,
Their behavior was offensive, (but) she was indulgent.
Thereupon Apsu, begettor of the great gods,
(30) Summoned Mummu his vizier, saying to him,
“Mummu, vizier who contents me,
Come, let us go to Tiamat.”
They went, took their places facing Tiamat,
They took counsel concerning the gods their offspring.
(35) Apsu made ready to speak,
Saying to her, Tiamat, in a loud voice,
“Their behavior is noisome to me!
By day I have no rest, at night I do not sleep!
I wish to put an end to their behavior, to do away with it!
(40) Let silence reign that we may sleep.”
When Tiamat had heard this,
She grew angry and cried out to her spouse,
She cried out bitterly, outraged that she stood alone,
(For) he had urged evil upon her,
(45) “What? Shall we put an end to what we created?
Their behavior may be most noisome,
but we should bear it in good part.”
It was Mummu who answered, counselling Apsu,
Like a dissenting vizier’s was the counsel of his Mummu,
“Put an end here and now, father, to their troublesome ways!
(50) By day you should have rest, at night you should sleep.”
Apsu was delighted with him, he beamed.
On account of the evils he plotted against the gods his children,
He embraced Mummu, around his neck,
He sat on his knees so he could kiss him.
(55) Whatever they plotted between them,
Was repeated to the gods their offspring.
The gods heard it as they stirred about,
They were stunned, they sat down in silence.
Surpassing in wisdom, ingenious, resourceful,
(60) Ea was aware of all, recognized their stratagem.
He fashioned it, he established it, a master plan,
He made it artful, his superb magic spell.
He recited it and brought (him)
to rest in the waters,
He put him in deep slumber, he was fast asleep,
(65) He made Apsu sleep, he was drenched with slumber,
Mummu the advisor was drowsy with languor.
He untied his sash, he stripped off his tiara,
He took away his aura, he himself put it on.
He tied up Apsu, he killed him,
(70) Mummu he bound, he locked him securely.
He founded his dwelling upon Apsu,
He secured Mummu, held (him) firm by a lead-rope.
After Ea had captured and vanquished his foes,
Had won the victory over his opponents,
(75) In his chamber, in profound quiet, he rested.
He called it “Apsu,” (meaning) “They Recognize Sanctuaries.”
He established therein his chamber,
Ea and Damkina his wife dwelt there in splendor.
In the cella of destinies, the abode of designs,
(80) The most capable, the sage of the gods, the Lord was begotten,
In the midst of Apsu Marduk was formed,
In the midst of holy Apsu was Marduk formed!
Ea his father begot him,
Damkina his mother was confined with him.
(85) He suckled at the breasts of goddesses,
The attendant who raised him endowed him well with glories.
His body was splendid, fiery his glance,
He was a hero at birth, he was a mighty one from the beginning!
When Anu his grandfather saw him,
(90) He was happy, he beamed, his heart was filled with joy.
He perfected him, so that his divinity was strange,
He was much greater, he surpassed them in every way.
His members were fashioned with cunning beyond comprehension,
Impossible to conceive, too difficult to visualize:
(95) Fourfold his vision, fourfold his hearing,
When he moved his lips a fire broke out.
Formidable his fourfold perception,
And his eyes, in like number, saw in every direction.
He was tallest of the gods, surpassing in form,
(100) His limbs enormous, he was surpassing at birth.
“The son Utu, the son Utu,
The son, the sun, the sunlight of the gods!”
He wore (on his body) the auras of ten gods, had (them) wrapped around his head too,
Fifty glories were heaped upon him.
(105) Anu formed and produced the four winds,
He put them in his hand, “Let my son play!”
He fashioned dust, he made a storm bear it up,
He caused a wave and it roiled Tiamat,
Tiamat was roiled, churning day and night,
(110) The gods, finding no rest, bore the brunt of each wind.
They plotted evil in their hearts,
They said to Tiamat their mother,
“When he killed Apsu your husband,
You did nothing to save him but sat by, silent.
(115) Now he has made four terrible winds,
They are roiling your vitals so we cannot sleep.
You had no care for Apsu your husband,
As for Mummu, who was captured, you remained aloof.
Now you churn back and forth, confused.
(120) As for us, who cannot lie down to rest, you do not love us!
Think of our burden, our eyes are pinched,
Lift this unremitting yoke, let us sleep!
Battle has begun, give them what they deserve,
[Ma]ke a [tempest], turn them into nothingness.”
(125) When Tiamat [heard] these words, they pleased her,
“[As y]ou have counselled, we will make a tempest,
[We will ] the gods within it,
(For) they have been adopting [wicked ways] against the gods [thei]r parents.”
[They clo]sed ranks and drew up at Tiamat’s side,
(130) Angry, scheming, never lying down night and day,
[Ma]king warfare, rumbling, raging,
Convening in assembly, that they might start hostilities.
Mother Hubur, who can form everything,
Added countless invincible weapons, gave birth to monster serpents,
(135) Pointed of fang, with merciless incisors (?),
She filled their bodies with venom for blood.
Fierce dragons she clad with glories,
Causing them to bear auras like gods, (saying)
“Whoever sees them shall collapse from weakness!
(140) Wherever their bodies make onslaught, they shall not turn back!”
She deployed serpents, dragons, and hairy hero-men,
Lion monsters, lion men, scorpion men,
Mighty demons, fish men, bull men,
Bearing unsparing arms, fearing no battle.
(145) Her commands were absolute, no one opposed them,
Eleven indeed on this wise she crea.
From among the gods her offspring, who composed her assembly,
She raised up Qingu from among them, it was he she made greatest!
Leadership of the army, command of the assembly,
(150) Arming, contact, advance of the melee,
Supreme command in warfare,
(All) she entrusted to him, made him sit on the dais.
“I cast your spell. I make you the greatest in the assembly of the gods,
Kingship of all the gods I put in your power.
(155) You are the greatest, my husband, you are illustrious,
Your command shall always be greatest, over all the Anunna–gods.”
She gave him the tablet of destinies, had him hold it to his chest, (saying)
“As for you, your command will not be changed, your utterance will be eternal.
Now that Qingu is the highest and has taken [supremacy],
(160) And has [ordained] destinies for his divine children,
Whatever you (gods) say shall cause fire to [subside],
Your concentrated venom shall make the mighty one yield.”
Tablet II
(1) Tiamat assembled her creatures,
Drew up for battle against the gods her brood.
Thereafter Tiamat, more than (?) Apsu, was become an evildoer.
She informed Ea that she was ready for battle.
(5) When Ea heard this,
He was struck dumb with horror and sat stock still.
After he had thought and his distress had calmed,
He made straight his way to Anshar his grandfather.
He came in before his grandfather, Anshar,
(10) All that Tiamat plotted he recounted to him,
“My father, Tiamat our mother has grown angry with us,
She has convened an assembly, furious with rage.
All the gods rallied around her,
Even those you created are going over to her side,
(15) They are massing around her, ready at Tiamat’s side.
Angry, scheming, never lying down night and day,
Making warfare, rumbling, raging,
Convening in assembly, that they might start hostilities.
Mother Hubur, who can form everything,
(20) Added countless invincible weapons, gave birth to monster serpents,
Pointed of fang, with merciless incisors (?),
She filled their bodies with venom for blood.
Fierce dragons she clad with glories,
Causing them to bear auras like gods, (saying)
(25) ‘Whoever sees them shall collapse from weakness!
Wherever their bodies make onslaught, they shall not turn back!’
She deployed serpents, dragons, and hairy hero-men,
Lion monsters, lion men, scorpion men,
Mighty demons, fish men, bull men,
(30) Bearing unsparing arms, fearing no battle.
Her commands were absolute, no one opposed them,
Eleven indeed on this wise she created.
From among the gods her offspring, who composed her assembly,
She raised up Qingu from among them, it was he she made greatest!
(35) Leadership of the army, command of the assembly,
Arming, contact, advance of the melee,
Supreme command in warfare,
(All) she entrusted to him, made him sit on the dais.
‘I cast your spell. I make you the greatest in the assembly of the gods,
(40) Kingship of all the gods I put in your power.
You are the greatest, my husband, you are illustrious.
Your command shall always be greatest, over all the Anunna–gods.’
She gave him the tablet of destinies, had him hold it to his chest, (saying)
‘As for you, your command will not be changed, your utterance will be eternal.
(45) Now that Qingu is the highest and has taken [supremacy],
And has [ordained] destinies for his divine children,
Whatever you (gods) say shall cause fire to [subside],
Your concentrated venom shall make the mighty one yield.’ ”
[When Anshar heard] the speech, the affair was confused,
(50) He cried out “Woe!”; he bit his lip,
His spirits were angry, his mind was uneasy,
His cries to Ea his offspring grew choked,
“My son, you yourself were instigator of battle!
Do you bear the consequences of your own handiwork!
(55) You went forth and killed Apsu,
So Tiamat, whom you have enraged, where is one who can face her?”
The sage counsellor, wise prince,
Producer of wisdom, divine Nudimmud,
Answered his father Anshar gently,
(60) With soothing words, calming speech,
“My father, inscrutable, ordainer of destinies,
Who has power to create and destroy,
O Anshar, inscrutable, ordainer of destinies,
Who has power to create and destroy,
(65) I will declare my thoughts to you, relent for a moment,
Recall in your heart that I made a good plan.
Before I undertook to kill Apsu,
Who had foreseen what is happening now?
Ere I was the one who moved quickly to snuff out his life,
(70) I indeed, for it was I who destroyed him, [wh]at was occurring?”
When Anshar heard this, it pleased him,
He calmed down, saying to Ea,
“Your deeds are worthy of a god,
You can (?) [ ] a fierce, irresistible stroke,
(75) Ea, your deeds are worthy of a god,
You can (?) [ ] a fierce, irresistible stroke,
Go then to Tiamat, sub[due] her onslaught,
May her anger [be pacified] by [your] magic spell.”
When he heard the command [of his father] A[nshar],
(80) He set off, making straight his way,
Ea went to seek out Tiamat’s stratagem.
He stopped, horror–stricken, then turned back.
He came before Anshar the sovereign,
He beseeched him with entreaties, saying,
(85) “[My father], Tiamat has carried her actions beyond me,
I sought out her course, but my spell cannot counter it.
Her strength is enormous, she is utterly terrifying,
She is reinforced with a host, none can come out against her.
Her challenge was in no way reduced, it was so loud (?) against me,
(90) I became afraid at her clamor, I turned back.
My father, do not despair, send another to her,
A woman’s force may be very great, but it cannot match a man’s.
Do you scatter her ranks, thwart her intentions,
Before she lays her hands on all of us.”
(95) Anshar was shouting, in a passion,
To Anu his son he said these words,
“Stalwart son, valiant warrior,
Whose strength is enormous, whose onslaught is irresistible,
Hurry, take a stand before Tiamat,
(100) Soothe her feelings, let her heart be eased.
If she will not listen to what you say,
Say something by way of entreaty to her, so that she be pacified.”
When he heard what his father Anshar said,
He set off, [made str]aight his way,
(105) Anu went to seek out Tiamat’s stratagem.
He stopped, horror–stricken, then turned back.
He came before [Ansha]r, [his father who begot him],
He beseeched him with entreaties, s[aying],
“My father, Tiamat has carried her actions beyond me,
(110) I sought out her course, but my s[pell cannot counter it].
Her strength is enormous, she is utterly terrifying,
She is reinforced with a host, none can [come out against] her.
Her challenge was in no way reduced, it was so loud (?) against me,
I became afraid at her clamor, I turned back.
(115) My father, do not despair, send another to her,
A woman’s strength may be very great, but it cannot match a man’s.
Do you scatter her ranks, thwart her intentions,
Before she lays her hands on all of us.”
Anshar fell silent, gazing at the ground,
(120) Nodding towards Ea, he shook his head.
The Igigi–gods and Anunna–gods were all assembled,
With lips closed tight, they sat in silence.
Would no god go out [at his] command?
Against Tiamat would none go as [he] ordered?
(125) Then Anshar, father of the great gods,
His heart was angry, he [would not summon] anyone!
The mighty firstborn, champion of his father,
Hastener to battle, the warrior Marduk
Did Ea summon to his secret place,
(130) Told him his secret words,
“O Marduk, think, heed your father,
You are my son who can relieve his heart!
Draw nigh, approach Anshar,
(135) Make ready to speak. He was angry, seeing you he will be calm.”
The Lord was delighted at his father’s words,
He drew near and waited upon Anshar.
When Anshar saw him, his heart was filled with joyful feelings,
He kissed his lips, he banished his gloom.
(140) “My father, let not your lips be silent but speak,
Let me go, let me accomplish your heart’s desire.
[O Anshar], let not your lips be silent but speak,
Let me go, let me accomplish your heart’s desire!
What man is it who has sent forth his battle against you?”
(145) Why, Tiamat, a woman, comes out against you to arms.
[My father], creator, rejoice and be glad,
Soon you will trample the neck of Tiamat.
[Anshar], creator, rejoice and be glad,
Soon you will trample [the neck] of Tiamat!”
(150) “[Go], son, knower of all wisdom,
Bring Tiamat to rest with your sacral spell.
Make straight, quickly, with the storm chariot,
Let it not veer from its [course], turn (it) back!”
The Lord was delighted at his grandfather’s words,
(155) His heart was overjoyed as he said to his grandfather,
“Lord of the gods, of the destiny of the great gods,
If indeed I am to champion you,
Subdue Tiamat and save your lives,
Convene the assembly, nominate me for supreme destiny!
(160) Take your places in the Assembly Place of the Gods, all of you, in joyful mood.
When I speak, let me ordain destinies instead of you.
Let nothing that I shall bring about be altered,
Nor what I say be revoked or changed.”
Tablet III
(1) Anshar made ready to speak,
Saying to Kakka his vizier these words,
“Kakka, vizier who contents me,
Let it be you that I send off towards Lahmu and Lahamu.
(5) You know how [to find a way], you can make a fine speech.
Send over to my presence the gods my ancestors,
Let them bring all the gods before me.
Let them converse, sit down at a feast,
On produce of the field let them feed, imbibe of the vine.
(10) Let them ordain destiny for Marduk, their champion.
Be off, Kakka, wait upon them,
All that I tell you, repeat to them:
‘It is Anshar your son who has ordered me to come,
He has bade me speak in full the command of his heart,
(15) To wit: “Tiamat our mother has grown angry with us,
She has convened an assembly, furious with rage.
All the gods rallied around her,
Even those you created are going over to her side.
They are massing around her, ready at Tiamat’s side.
(20) Angry, scheming, never lying down night and day,
Making warfare, rumbling, raging,
Convening in assembly, that they might start hostilities.
Mother Hubur, who can form everything,
Added countless invincible weapons, gave birth to monster serpents,
(25) Pointed of fang, with merciless incisors (?),
She filled their bodies with venom for blood.
Fierce dragons she clad with glories,
Causing them to bear auras like gods, (saying)
‘Whoever sees them shall collapse from weakness!
(30) Wherever their bodies make onslaught, they shall not turn back.’
She deployed serpents, dragons, and hairy hero-men,
Lion monsters, lion men, scorpion men,
Mighty demons, fish men, bull men,
Bearing unsparing arms, fearing no battle.
(35) Her commands were absolute, no one opposed them.
Eleven indeed on this wise she created.
From among the gods her offspring, who composed her assembly,
She raised up Qingu from among them, it was he she made greatest!
Leadership of the army, command of the assembly,
(40) Arming, contact, advance of the melee,
Supreme command in warfare:
All she entrusted to him, made him sit on the dais.
‘I cast your spell, I make you the greatest in the assembly of the gods,
Kingship of all the gods I put in your power.
(45) You are greatest, my husband, you are illustrious,
Your command shall always be greatest, over all the Anunna–gods.’
She gave him the tablet of destinies, had him hold it to his chest, (saying)
‘As for you, your command will not be changed, your utterance will be eternal.
Now that Qingu is the highest and has taken over [supremacy],
(50) And has [ordained] destinies for his divine children,
Whatever you (gods) say shall cause fire to [subside],
Your concentrated venom shall make the mighty one yield.’
I sent Anu, he could not confront her,
Nudimmud was afraid and turned back.
(55) Marduk came forward, the sage of the gods, your son,
He has resolved to go against Tiamat.
When he spoke, he said to me,
‘If indeed I am to champion you,
Subdue Tiamat and save your lives,
(60) Convene the assembly, nominate me for supreme destiny!
Take your places in the Assembly Place of the Gods, all of you, in joyful mood,
When I speak, let me ordain destinies instead of you.
Let nothing that I shall bring about be altered,
Nor what I say be revoked or changed.’
(65) Come quickly to me, straightaway ordain him your destinies,
Let him go and confront your powerful enemy.”
Kakka went and made straight his way
Towards Lahmu and Lahamu the gods his ancestors.
He prostrated, kissed the ground before them.
(70) He stood up straight and said to them,
“It is Anshar your son who has ordered me to come,
He has bade me speak in full the command of his heart:
‘Tiamat our mother has grown angry with us,
She has convened an assembly, furious with rage.
(75) All the gods rallied around her,
Even those you created are going over to her side.
They are massing around her, ready at Tiamat’s side.
Angry, scheming, never lying down night and day,
Making warfare, rumbling, raging,
(80) Convening in assembly, that they might begin hostilities.
Mother Hubur, who can form everything,
Added countless invincible weapons, gave birth to monster serpents,
Pointed of fang, with merciless incisors (?),
She filled their bodies with venom for blood.
(85) Fierce dragons she clad with glories,
Causing them to bear auras like gods, (saying)
“Whoever sees them shall collapse from weakness!
Wherever their bodies make onslaught they shall not turn back!”
She deployed serpents, dragons, and hairy hero-men,
(90) Lion monsters, lion men, scorpion men,
Mighty demons, fish men, bull men,
Bearing unsparing arms, fearing no battle.
Her commands were absolute, no one opposed them.
Eleven indeed on this wise she created!
From among the gods her offspring who composed her assembly,
She raised up Qingu from among them, it was he she made greatest!
Leadership of the army, command of the assembly,
Arming, contact, advance of the melee,
Supreme command in warfare:
(100) (All) she entrusted to him, made him sit on the dais.
“I cast your spell and make you the greatest in the assembly of the gods,
Kingship of all the gods I put in your power.
You shall be the greatest, you are my only spouse,
Your name shall always be greatest, over all the Anunna–gods.”
(105) ‘She gave him the tablet of destinies, had him hold it to his chest, (saying)
“As for you, your command will not be changed, your utterance will be eternal.
Now that Qingu is the highest and has taken over [supremacy],
And has [ordained] destinies for his divine children,
Whatever you (gods) say shall cause fire to [subside],
(110) Your concentrated venom will make the mighty one yield.”
‘I sent Anu, he could not confront her,
Nudimmud was afraid and turned back.
Marduk came forward, the sage of the gods, your son,
He has resolved to go against Tiamat.
(115) When he spoke, he said to me,
“If indeed I am to champion you,
Subdue Tiamat and save your lives,
Convene the assembly, nominate me for supreme destiny!
In the Assembly Place of the Gods take your places, all of you, in joyful mood.
(120) When I speak, let me ordain destinies instead of you.
Let nothing that I shall bring about be altered,
Nor what I say be revoked nor changed.”
‘Hurry to me, straightaway ordain him your destinies,
Let him go and confront your powerful enemy.’
(125) When Lahmu and Lahamu heard, they cried aloud,
All of the Igigi–gods wailed bitterly,
“What (is our) hostility, that she has taken a[ct]ion (against) us?
We scarcely know what Tiamat might do!”
They swarmed together and came.
(130) All the great gods, ordainers of [destinies],
Came before Anshar and were filled with [joy].
One kissed the other in the assembly [ ],
They conversed, sat down at a feast,
On produce of the field they fed, imbibed of the vine,
(135) With sweet liquor they made their gullets run,
They felt good from drinking the beer.
Most carefree, their spirits rose,
To Marduk their champion they ordained destiny.
Tablet IV
(1) They set out for him a princely dais,
He took his place before his fathers for sovereignty.
“You are the most important among the great gods,
Your destiny is unrivalled, your command is supreme.
(5) O Marduk, you are the most important among the great gods,
Your destiny is unrivalled, your command is supreme!
Henceforth your command cannot be changed,
To raise high, to bring low, this shall be your power.
Your command shall be truth, your word shall not be misleading.
(10) Not one of the gods shall go beyond the limits you set.
Support is wanted for the gods’ sanctuaries,
Wherever their shrines shall be, your own shall be established.
O Marduk, you are our champion,
We bestow upon you kingship of all and everything.
(15) Take your place in the assembly, your word shall be supreme.
May your weapon never strike wide but dispatch your foes.
O Lord, spare his life who trusts in you,
But the god who has taken up evil, snuff out his life!”
They set up among them a certain constellation,
(20) To Marduk their firstborn said they (these words),
“Your destiny, O Lord, shall be foremost of the gods’,
Command destruction or creation, they shall take place.
At your word the constellation shall be destroyed,
Command again, the constellation shall be intact.”
(25) He commanded and at his word the constellation was destroyed,
He commanded again and the constellation was created anew.
When the gods his fathers saw what he had commanded,
Joyfully they hailed, “Marduk is king!”
They bestowed in full measure scepter, throne, and staff,
(30) They gave him unopposable weaponry that vanquishes enemies.
“Go, cut off the life of Tiamat,
Let the winds bear her blood away as glad tidings!”
The gods, his fathers, ordained the Lord’s destiny,
On the path to success and authority did they set him marching.
(35) He made the bow, appointed it his weapon,
He mounted the arrow, set it on the string.
He took up the mace, held it in his right hand,
Bow and quiver he slung on his arm.
Thunderbolts he set before his face,
(40) With raging fire he covered his body.
Then he made a net to enclose Tiamat within,
He deployed the four winds that none of her might escape:
South Wind, North Wind, East Wind, West Wind,
Gift of his grandfather Anu; he fastened the net at his side.
(45) He made ill wind, whirlwind, cyclone,
Four–ways wind, seven–ways wind, destructive wind, irresistible wind:
He released the winds which he had made, the seven of them,
Mounting in readiness behind him to roil inside Tiamat.
Then the Lord raised the Deluge, his great weapon.
(50) He mounted the terrible chariot, the unopposable Storm Demon,
He hitched to it the four–steed team, he tied them at his side:
“Slaughterer,” “Merciless,” “Overwhelmer,” “Soaring.”
Their lips are curled back, their teeth bear venom,
They know not fatigue, they are trained to trample down.
(55) He stationed at his right gruesome battle and strife,
At his left the fray that overthrows all formations.
He was garbed in a ghastly armored garment,
On his head he was covered with terrifying auras.
The Lord made straight and pursued his way,
(60) Toward raging Tiamat he set his face.
He was holding a spell ready upon his lips,
A plant, antidote to venom, he was grasping in his hand.
At that moment the gods were stirring, stirring about him,
The gods his fathers were stirring about him, the gods stirring about him.
(65) The Lord drew near, to see the battle of Tiamat,
He was looking for the stratagem of Qingu her spouse.
As he looked, his tactic turned to confusion,
His reason was overthrown, his actions panicky,
And as for the gods his allies, who went at his side,
(70) When they saw the valiant vanguard, their sight failed them.
Tiamat cast her spell pointblank,
Falsehood, lies she held ready on her lips.
“… lord, the gods rise against you,
They assembled [where] they are, (but) are they on your side?”
(75) The Lord [raised] the Deluge, his great weapon,
To Tiamat, who acted conciliatory, sent he (this word),
“Why outwardly do you assume a friendly attitude,
While your heart is plotting to open attack?
Children cried out, they oppress their parents,
(80) But you, their own mother, spurned all natural feeling.
You named Qingu to be spouse for you,
Though he had no right to be, you set him up for chief god.
You attempted wicked deeds against Anshar, sovereign of the gods,
And you have perpetrated your evil against the gods my fathers.
(85) Though main force is drawn up, though these your weapons are in array,
Come within range, let us duel, you and I!”
When Tiamat heard this,
She was beside herself, she turned into a maniac.
Tiamat shrieked loud, in a passion,
(90) Her frame shook all over, down to the ground.
He was reciting the incantation, casting his spell,
While the gods of battle were whetting their blades.
Tiamat and Marduk, sage of the gods, drew close for battle,
They locked in single combat, joining for the fray.
(95) The Lord spread out his net, encircled her,
The ill wind he had held behind him he released in her face.
Tiamat opened her mouth to swallow,
He thrust in the ill wind so she could not close her lips.
The raging winds bloated her belly,
(100) Her insides were stopped up, she gaped her mouth wide.
He shot off the arrow, it broke open her belly,
It cut to her innards, it pierced the heart.
He subdued her and snuffed out her life,
He flung down her carcass, he took his stand upon it.
(105) After the vanguard had slain Tiamat,
He scattered her forces, he dispersed her host.
As for the gods her allies, who had come to her aid,
They trembled, terrified, they ran in all directions,
They tried to make a way out (?) to save their lives,
(110) There was no escaping the grasp that held (them)!
He drew them in and smashed their weapons.
They were cast in the net and sat in a heap,
They were heaped up in the corners, full of woe,
They were bearing his punishment, to prison confined.
(115) As for the eleven creatures, the ones adorned with glories,
And the demonic horde (?), which all went at her side,
He put on lead ropes, he bound their arms.
He trampled them under, together with their belligerence.
As for Qingu, who was trying to be great among them,
(120) He captured him and reckoned him among the doomed.
He took away from him the tablet of destinies that he had no right to,
He sealed it with a seal and affixed it to his chest.
Having captured his enemies and triumphed,
Having shown the mighty (?) foe subservient (?),
(125) Having fully achieved Anshar’s victory over his enemies,
Valiant Marduk having attained what Nudimmud desired,
He made firm his hold over the captured gods,
Then turned back to Tiamat whom he had captured.
The Lord trampled upon the frame of Tiamat,
(130) With his merciless mace he crushed her skull.
He cut open the arteries of her blood,
He let the North Wind bear (it) away as glad tidings.
When his fathers saw, they rejoiced and were glad,
They brought him gifts and presents.
(135) He calmed down. Then the Lord was inspecting her carcass,
That he might divide (?) the monstrous lump and fashion artful things.
He split her in two, like a fish for drying,
Half of her he set up and made as a cover, heaven.
He stretched out the hide and assigned watchmen,
(140) And ordered them not to let her waters escape.
He crossed heaven and inspected (its) firmament,
He made a counterpart to Apsu, the dwelling of Nudimmud.
The Lord measured the construction of Apsu,
He founded the Great Sanctuary, the likeness of Esharra.
(In) the Great Sanctuary, (in) Esharra, which he built, (and in) heaven,
He made Ea, Enlil, and Anu dwell in their holy places.
Tablet V
(1) He made the position(s) for the great gods,
He established (in) constellations the stars, their likenesses.
He marked the year, described its boundaries,
He set up twelve months of three stars each.
(5) After he had patterned the days of the year,
He fixed the position of Neberu to mark the (stars’) relationships.
Lest any make an error or go astray,
He established the position(s) of Enlil and Ea in relation to it.
He opened up gates on both (sides of her) ribs,
(10) He made strong bolts to left and right.
In her liver he established the zenith.
He made the moon appear, entrusted (to him) the night.
He assigned to him the crown jewel of nighttime to mark the day (of the month):
Every month, without ceasing, he exalted him with a crown.
(15) “At the beginning of the month, waxing over the land,
You shine with horns to mark six days,
At the seventh day, the disk as [ha]lf.
At the fifteenth day, you shall be in opposition, at the midpoint of each [month].
When the sun f[ac]es you from the horizon of heaven,
(20) Wane at the same pace and form in reverse.
At the day of di[sappeara]nce, approach the sun’s course,
On the [ ] of the thirtieth day, you shall be in conjunction with the sun a second time.
I d[efined]? the celestial signs, proceed on their path,
[ ] approach each other and render (oracular) judgment.
(50) To raise the wind, to cause rainfall,
To make mists steam, to pile up her spittle (as snow?),
He assigned to himself, put under his control.
He set down her head and piled [ ] upon it,
He opened underground springs, a flood was let flow (?).
(55) From her eyes he undammed the Euph[rates] and Tigris,
He stopped up her nostrils, he left …
He heaped up high–peaked mo[unt]ains from (?) her dugs.
He drilled through her waterholes to carry off the catchwater.
He coiled up her tail and tied it as (?) “The Great Bond.”
(60) [ ] Apsu beneath, at his feet.
He set her crotch as the brace of heaven,
Spreading [half of] her as a cover, he established the netherworld.
[After he had completed his task inside Tiamat,
[He spre]ad his net, let all (within) escape.
[…]
After he had designed his prerogatives and devised his responsibilities,
He put on leadlines, entrusted (those) to Ea.
[The tablet] of destinies, which he took from Qingu and brought away,
(70) As the foremost gift he took away, he presented (it) to Anu.
The [ ] of battle, which he had fastened on and set on his head,
[ ] he led before his fathers.
[And as for] the eleven creatures which Tiamat created …
He smashed their [wea]pons, he tied them to his feet.
(75) He made images [of them] and set them up at the [Gate of] Apsu:
“Lest ever after they be forgotten, let this be the sign.”
When [the gods] saw, they rejoiced and were glad, Lahmu, Lahamu, and all his fathers.
Anshar [embra]ced him, proclaimed (his) salutation (to be) “king.”
(80) [A]nu, Enlil, and Ea gave him gifts,
[ ] Damkina his mother made cries of joy over him,
She (?) made his face glow with (cries of) “Good …!”
To Usmu, who brought (Damkina’s) gift at the glad tidings,
[He en]trusted the ministry of Apsu and care of the sanctuaries.
(85) All the Igigi–gods together prostrated themselves before him,
[And] the Anunna–gods, all there are, were doing him homage,
The whole of them joined together to pay him reverence,
[Before him] they stood, they prostrated themselves, “This is the king!”
[After] his fathers had celebrated him in due measure,
(90) [ ] covered with the dust of battle.
[ ] …
With cedar [oil] and [ ] he anoi[nted] his body,
He clothed himself in [his] princely [gar]ment,
The kingly aura, the awe–inspiring tiara,
(95) He picked up the mace, he held it in his right hand,
[ ] he held in his left hand.
[ ]
[ ] he made firm at his feet.
He set over [ ]
(100) The staff of success and authority [he hung] at his side.
After he [had put on] the aura of [his kingship],
His netted sack, the Apsu [ ] awesomeness.
He was seated like [ ]
In [his] throne room [ ]
(105) In his cella [ ]
The gods, all there are, [ ]
Lahmu and Lahamu [ ]
Made ready to speak and [said to] the Igigi–gods:
“Formerly [Mar]duk was ‘our beloved son,’
(110) Now he is your king, pay heed to his command.”
Next all of them spoke and said:
“ ‘Lugaldimmerankia’ is his name, trust in him!”
When they had given kingship over to Marduk,
They said to him expressions of good will and obedience,
(115) “Henceforth you shall be provider for our sanctuaries,
Whatever you shall command, we will do.”
Marduk made ready to speak and said
(These) words to the gods his fathers,
“Above Apsu, the azure dwelling,
(120) As counterpart to Esharra, which I built for you,
Below the firmament, whose grounding I made firm,
A house I shall build, let it be the abode of my pleasure.
Within it I shall establish its holy place,
I shall appoint my (holy) chambers, I shall establish my kingship.
(125) When you go up from Apsu to assembly,
Let your stopping places be there to receive you.
When you come down from heaven to [assembly],
Let your stopping places be there to receive all of you.
I shall call [its] name [Babylon], (meaning) “Houses of the Great Gods,”
(130) We shall all hold fe[stival]s with[in] it.”
When the gods his fathers heard what he commanded,
They … [ ]
“Over all things which your hands have created,
Who has [authority, save for you]?
(135) Over the earth that you have created,
Who has [authority, save for] you?
Babylon, to which you have given name,
Make our [stopping place] there forever.
Let them bring us our daily portions,
(140) [ ] our [ ].
Whosoever shall [ ] our task which we [ ],
In his place [ ] his toil [ ].”
[…]
The gods prostrated themselves before him, saying,
(150) To Lugaldimmeran[ki]a their lord they [said],
“Formerly [we called you] ‘The Lord, [our beloved] son,’
Now ‘Our King’ … [shall be your name],
He whose [sacral] sp[ell] saved our lives,”
[ au]ra, ma[ce], and ne[t],
(155) [Ea (?), ev]ery [sk]ill.
Let him make the plans, we … [ ].”
Tablet VI
(1) When [Mar]duk heard the speech of the gods,
He was resolving to make artful things:
He would tell his idea to Ea,
What he thought of in his heart he proposes,
(5) “I shall compact blood, I shall cause bones to be,
I shall make stand a human being, let ‘Man’ be its name.
I shall create humankind,
They shall bear the gods’ burden that those may rest.
I shall artfully double the ways of the gods:
(10) Let them be honored as one but divided in twain.”
Ea answered him, saying these words,
He told him a plan to let the gods rest,
“Let one, their brother, be given to me,
Let him be destroyed so that people can be fashioned.
(15) Let the great gods convene in assembly,
Let the guilty one be given up that they may abide.”
Marduk convened the great gods in assembly,
He spoke to them magnanimously as he gave the command,
The gods heeded his utterance,
(20) As the king spoke to the Anunna–gods (these) words,
“Let your first reply be the truth!
Do you speak with me truthful words!
Who was it that made war,
Suborned Tiamat and drew up for battle?
(25) Let him be given over to me, the one who made war,
I shall make him bear his punishment, you shall be released.”
The Igigi, the great gods answered him,
To Lugaldimmerankia, sovereign of all the gods, their lord,
“It was Qingu who made war,
(30) Suborned Tiamat and drew up for battle.”
They bound and held him before Ea,
They imposed the punishment on him and shed his blood.
From his blood he made mankind,
He imposed the burden of the gods and exempted the gods.
(35) After Ea the wise had made mankind,
They imposed the burden of the gods on them!
That deed is beyond comprehension,
By the artifices of Marduk did Nudimmud create!
Marduk the king divided the gods,
(40) The Anunna–gods, all of them, above and below,
He assigned to Anu for duty at his command.
He set three hundred in heaven for (their) duty,
A like number he designated for the ways of the netherworld:
He made six hundred dwell in heaven and netherworld.
(45) After he had given all the commands,
And had divided the shares of the Anunna–gods of heaven and netherworld,
The Anunna–gods made ready to speak,
To Marduk their lord they said,
“Now, Lord, you who have liberated us,
(50) What courtesy may we do you?
We will make a shrine, whose name will be a byword,
Your chamber that shall be our stopping place, we shall find rest therein.
We shall lay out the shrine, let us set up its emplacement,
When we come (to visit you), we shall find rest therein.”
(55) When Marduk heard this,
His features glowed brightly, like the day,
“Then make Babylon the task that you requested,
Let its brickwork be formed, build high the shrine.”
The Anunna–gods set to with hoes,
(60) One (full) year they made its bricks.
When the second year came,
They raised up Esagila, the counterpart to Apsu,
They built the high ziggurat of (counterpart–)Apsu,
For Anu–Enlil–Ea they founded his … and dwelling.
(65) Majestically he took his seat before them,
Its pinnacles were facing toward the base of Esharra.
After they had done the work of Esagila,
All the Anunna–gods devised their own shrines.
The three hundred Igigi–gods of heaven and the six hundred of Apsu all convened.
(70) The Lord, on the Exalted Dais, which they built as his dwelling,
Seated the gods his fathers for a banquet,
“This is Babylon, your place of dwelling.
Take your pleasure there, seat yourselves in its delights!”
The great gods sat down,
(75) They set out cups, they sat down at the feast.
After they had taken their enjoyment inside it,
And in awe–inspiring Esagila had conducted the offering,
All the orders and designs had been made permanent,
All the gods had divided the stations of heaven and netherworld,
(80) The fifty great gods took their thrones,
The seven gods of destinies were confirmed forever for rendering judgment.
The Lord took the bow, his weapon, and set it before them,
The gods his fathers looked upon the net he had made.
They saw how artfully the bow was fashioned,
(85) His fathers were praising what he had brought to pass,
Anu raised (it), speaking to the assembly of the gods,
He kissed the bow, “This be my daughter!”
He named the bow, these are its names:
“ ‘Longwood’ shall be the first, ‘Conqueror’ shall be the second.”
(90) The third name, ‘Bow Star,’ he made visible in heaven.
He established its position with respect to the gods his brethren.
After Anu had ordained the destinies of the bow,
He set out the royal throne which stood highest among the gods,
Anu had him sit there, in the assembly of the gods.
(95) Then the great gods convened,
They made Marduk’s destiny highest, they prostrated themselves.
They laid upon themselves a curse (if they broke the oath),
With water and oil they swore, they touched their throats.
They granted him exercise of kingship over the gods,
(100) They established him forever for lordship of heaven and earth.
Anshar gave him an additional name, Asalluhi,
“When he speaks, we shall all do obeisance,
At his command the gods shall pay heed.
His word shall be supreme above and below,
(105) The son, our champion, shall be the highest.
His lordship shall be supreme, he shall have no rival,
He shall be the shepherd of the black–headed folk, his creatures.
They shall tell of his ways, without forgetting, in the future.
He shall establish for his fathers great food offerings,
(110) He shall provide for them, he shall take care of their sanctuaries.
He shall cause incense burners to be savored, he shall make their chambers rejoice.
He shall make on earth the counterpart of what he brought to pass in heaven,
He shall appoint the black–headed folk to serve him.
Let the subject peoples be mindful that their gods should be invoked,
(115) At his command let them heed their goddess (es).
Let their gods, their goddesses be brought food offerings;
Let (these) not be forgotten, let them sustain their gods.
Let their holy places be apparent (?), let them build their sanctuaries.
Let the black–headed folk be divided as to gods,
(120) (But) by whatever name we call him, let him be our god.
Tablet VII
The Igigi–gods pronounced all the names.
When Ea heard (them), he was joyful of heart,
He said, “He whose name his fathers have glorified,
(140) His name, like mine, shall be ‘Ea.’
He shall provide the procedures for all my offices,
He shall take charge of all my commands.”
With the name “Fifty” the great gods
Pronounced his fifty names, they made his position supreme.
(145) They must be grasped: the “first one” should reveal (them),
The wise and knowledgeable should ponder (them) together,
The master should repeat, and make the pupil understand.
The “shepherd,” the “herdsman” should pay attention,
He must not neglect the Enlil of the gods, Marduk,
(150) So his land may prosper and he himself be safe.
His word is truth, what he says is not changed,
Not one god can annul his utterance.
If he frowns, he will not relent,
If he is angry, no god can face his rage.
(155) His heart is remote, his feelings all encompassing,
He before whom crime and sin must appear for judgment.
The revelation (of the names) which the “first one” discoursed before him (Marduk),
He wrote down and preserved for the future to hear,
The [wo]rd of Marduk who created the Igigi–gods,
(160) [His/Its ] let them [ ], his name let them invoke.
Let them sound abroad the song of Marduk,
How he defeated Tiamat and took kingship.
REFERENCES
Text: Lambert and Parker 1966. Translations and studies: ANET 60–72, 501–503; Heidel 1951; Foster BM 1:351–402; FDD 9–51.
THE THEOGONY OF DUNNU (1.112)
William W. Hallo
The city of Dunnu (m), whose name is a generic term for “fort, fortress,” is equated in a lexical text with the “pristine heavenly city” (URU-SAG-AN-NA), and in a date formula with the “ancient capital city” or rather perhaps the “bolt” (URU-SAG-MAH) of the kingdom of Isin. Its fall in 1795 BCE ushered in the fall of Isin to Larsa in the following year. In the present text, it is even called an “eternal city” (ālu ṣātu; line 6), built by Heaven and Earth themselves “in the beginning.” It is their third and climactic creation and is followed by a complicated theogony set in the primordial past.
In the beginning, a [Haʾrab married Earth.]
Family b and lord[ship he founded.]
[Saying: “A]rable land we will carve out (of) the plowed land of the country.”
[With the p]lowing of their harbu-plows they caused the creation of Sea. c
(5) [The lands plowed with the mayaru-pl]ow by thems[elves] gave birth to Sumuqan.
His str[onghold,] Dunnu, the eternal city, they created, both of them.
Harab gave himself clear title to the lordship in Dunnu, but
[Earth] lifted (her) face to Sumuqan, his son, and
“Come here and let me make love to you!” she said to him.
(10) Sumuqan married his mother Earth and
Hara[b his fat]her he killed (and)
In Dunnu which he loved he laid him to rest.
Moreover Sumuqan took over the lordship of his father.
Sea, his older sister, he married.
(15) Gaiu, the son of Sumuqan, came [and]
Sumuqan he killed and in Dunnu
in the g[rave] of his father he laid him to rest.
Sea, his mother, he married.
Moreover Sea murde[red] Earth, her mother.
(20) In the month Kislimu, the 16th day, he took over lordship and kingship.
[Gaiu], son of Gaiu, married Ida (River), his own sister.
[Gaiu], (his) father, and Sea, his mother, he killed and
[In the gra]ve he laid them to rest together.
In the month Tebitu, the 1st day, he [seize]d kingship and lordship for himself.
(25) [Kush, son of G]aiu, married Ua-ildak,9 his sister, and
[the verdure] of the earth he made abundant.
He put it at the [disposal of sheepfold and] cattle-pen,
[for the consumpt]ion of wildlife and herds of wild animals.
[Moreover the necessitie]s he put at the [disposal] of the needs of the gods.
(30) [Gaiu and] Idu (River), his mother, he kille[d and]
[in a grave] he caused them to dwell.
[In the month Shabatu, the xth day,] he took over lordship and kingship for himself.
[Haharnum, son of Ku]sh, married Belit-seri,12 his sister, [and]
[Kush and] Ua-ildak, his mother, he [killed and]
(35) [ in a grave] he caused them to dwell.
[In the month Addar]u, the 16th day (var.: the 29th day), [he took over] kingship and lordship.
[Hayyashum,] the child of Haharnum,
Married […,] his own sister.
[At the New Year] he took over the lordship of his father.
(40) [He did not] kill him but a[live]
[he seized him and to the city of Shupat-[… he brought him.]
(Approximately 40 lines largely destroyed.)
At the akitu-festival of the month Ayaru
(rev. 20´) the Song of the Plowing Oxen in the country [let him declaim] sweetly.
(Colophon) [According to the wording] of a tablet which is a copy from Babylon and Assur, written and checked.
(Composition called) Harab. Complete.
REFERENCES
Text: CT 46:43. Translations and studies: Lambert and Walcot 1965; Grayson in ANET 517f.; Hallo 1970:66; Jacobsen 1984 (largely followed here); Dalley 1989:278–281.
ERRA AND ISHUM (1.113)
Stephanie Dalley
In the extant text known to us at present, Erra and Ishum may date no earlier than the eighth century BCE, but it almost certainly incorporates older elements. It consists of five tablets comprising some 750 lines; the final tablet is shorter than the others. Tablets with the text come from both Assyria (Nineveh, Assur, Sultantepe) and Babylonia (Babylon, Ur, Tell Haddad). The main tablet, from Assur, takes the form of an amulet.
The introductory lines belong to the genre associated with oral narrative in Standard Babylonian compositions, in which the poet in the first person declares the main theme of his subject; similar introductions are found in the Standard versions of Anzu and of Gilgamesh.
A few quotations have been found in the inscriptions of Sargon II and his contemporary in Babylon, the notorious Merodach–Baladan II, of the late eighth century, but those kings may have been quoting from the work because it was popular then, and not necessarily because it was composed at that time. Although the various tablets show very little textual variation, much more variation is exhibited in extracts, which were written commonly on amulets, and they show that different versions did indeed exist, perhaps due to oral tradition. Certain evidence of older associations has been noted, particularly with reference to the Suteans, traditionally nomadic enemies who damaged Babylonian cities in the eleventh century BCE, but they may have been incorporated deliberately to lend an air of antiquity and thus authority to the poem. Such a possibility is reinforced by an apparent element of pseudo–prophecy, which is expressed in Tablet IV, when Erra proclaims: “But afterwards a man of Akkad shall rise up.” So a date in the ninth or eighth century BCE seems likely. Erra and Ishum are quite similarly depicted in the Crown Prince’s Vision of the Nether World, which was probably composed in the early seventh century BCE.
Erra, also known as Nergal, one main subject of the poem, is a great god in the Mesopotamian pantheon whose aspects as a god of plague and lord of the Underworld made him particularly unpredictable and awesome. Partially assimilated with Gilgamesh on the one hand and with Heracles on the other, he was a fertility god, patron of copper smelting, controller of both wild and domesticated animals, and his weapon was floods and mountain torrents. As consort of the great fertility goddess Mami he had succeeded the Sumerian god Shulpae. As a heroic warrior of sudden and uncertain changes of mood, the poem presents him as an effective challenge to Marduk, now represented as the disgruntled and senile god of Babylon. The other main subject of the poem is Ishum, whose essential nature as god of fire and as leader in battle is tempered by his skill as a wise counsellor and cunning placator of Erra.
The poem does not describe a clear narrative of specific events, but rather consists of direct discourse in which the poet, Erra, Ishum, and Marduk all make speeches, mostly in a rhetorical and declamatory style. War threatens Babylonia because of Marduk’s impotence and Erra’s aggression, but total disaster is narrowly averted thanks to the soothing flattery of Erra by Ishum. There is no real enemy, no rivalry, no dangers faced and overcome, no failure. An element of ridicule and satire spices the characterization of both Erra and Marduk. Possibly the poem shows features of ritual drama: the poet speaks to the gods who are sometimes addressed in the second person, sometimes he speaks for them in the first person; at other times the narrative is in the third person. At times direct speech is given without preamble, as in the Epic of Creation; at times an epic type of formulaic introduction to direct speech is given in full. Thus the composition may offer information on the ancestry of true drama, which is thought to have arisen in Greece from a dithyrambic chorus that began a dialogue, in which a single actor played the god.
As for the purpose and form of the work, it is generally reckoned that it refers to the recent past history and tribulations of Babylonia which will now be put to right by the new “man of Akkad,” perhaps Nabonassar or Merodach–Baladan II, and the poem relates the events in a didactic manner. The ending of the work, and its use in extracts on amulets, makes it clear that certain passages served to ward off danger and illness. There is no clear evidence that the poem was used in the cult in specific circumstances, and there is no reason to connect its author with worship of Erra, whose main cult center at Kutha plays no part in the poem.
The ending of the poem is unusual, for the scribe is named as Kabti-ilani-Marduk of the Dabibi clan, a family first attested around 765 BCE and associated with high temple office in both Babylon and Uruk. A dream is the express source of his inspiration. In the final lines Erra in the first person exhorts the people to praise him. The destructive prophecies of Erra have been compared in general with the Oracles against the Nations in Ezekiel 24–32.
Although an epic formula to introduce direct speech is sometimes used, many of the speeches in this work occur abruptly. In some cases, especially where there are breaks in the text, the precise points at which a speech begins and ends are not certain.
Tablet I
[I sing of the son of] the king of all populated lands, creator of the world,
Of Hendursanga, Ellil’s heir,
Holder of the lofty scepter, herder of the black-headed people, shepherd of [populations],
Of Ishum, pious slaughterer whose hands are adept at carrying his furious weapons
And making his fierce axes flash! Erra, warrior of gods was stirring at home;
His heart urged him to make war.
He spoke to his weapons, “Rub yourselves with deadly poison!”
To the Sebitti, unrivalled warrior, “Arm yourselves with your weapons!”
He said to you (Ishum), “I shall go out into the open country —
(10) You will be the torch, people can see your light.
You are to march in front, and the gods [will follow you].
You are the sword that slaughters […].”
“O Erra, rise up, and in overwhelming the land
How happy your mood, how joyous your heart!”
Yet Erra himself felt as weak as a man short of sleep,
Saying to himself, “Should I rise or sleep?”
He told his weapons, “Stay propped in the cupboard!”
To the Sebitti, unrivalled warrior, “Go back to your home.”
Until you (Ishum) rouse him, he will stay asleep in bed,
(20) Enjoy himself with Mami his lover!
For he is Engidudu, lord who prowls by night, leader of princes,
Who leads on youths and girls and makes (night) as bright as day.
Different is the divine nature of the Sebitti, unrivalled warrior;
Their birth was strange and full of terrible portents.
Anyone who sees them is smitten with terror, for their breath is lethal;
People are petrified and cannot approach them.
Ishum is the door bolted before them.
When Anu, king of the gods, impregnated Earth,
She bore the Seven Gods for him and he named them Sebitti.
(30) When they stood before him, he decreed their destiny.
He summoned the first and gave him orders,
“Wherever you band together and march out, you shall have no rival.”
He spoke to the second, “Ignite like Gerra and blaze like a flame!”
He said to the third, “You must put on the face of a lion, so that anyone seeing you will crumble in terror.”
He spoke to the fourth, “Let the mountain flee before the one who bears your fierce weapons!”
He ordered the fifth, “Blow like the wind, and seek out the rim of the world!”
He commanded the sixth, “Go through above and below, and do not spare anyone!”
The seventh he filled with dragon’s venom, and “Lay low living things!”
When Anu had decreed the destinies of all the Sebitti,
(40) He gave them to Erra, warrior of the gods, “Let them march at your side!
Whenever the hubbub of settled people becomes unbearable to you,
And you want to wreak destruction,
To kill off some black–headed people and lay low Shakkan’s cattle.
These shall act as your fierce weapons, and march at your side!”
They were indeed fierce, and their weapons rose up.
They said to Erra, “Rise! Stand up!
Why do you stay in town like a feeble old man?
How can you stay at home like a lisping child?
Are we to eat women’s bread, like one who has never marched on to the battlefield?
(50) Are we to be fearful and nervous as if we had no experience of war?
To go on to the battlefield is as good as a festival for young men!
Anyone who stays in town, be he a prince, will not be satisfied with bread alone;
He will be vilified in the mouths of his own people, and dishonored.
How can he raise his hand against one who goes to the battlefield?
However great the strength of one who stays in town,
How can he prevail over one who has been on the battlefield?
City food, however fancy, cannot compare with what is cooked on the embers.
Best beer, however sweet, cannot compare with water from a water–skin.
A palace built on a platform cannot compare with the shelters of [a camp.]
(60) Go out to the battlefield, warrior Erra, make your weapons resound!
Make your noise so loud that those above and below quake,
So that the Igigi hear and glorify your name,
So that the Anunnaki hear and fear your word,
So that the gods hear and submit to your yoke,
So that kings hear and kneel beneath you,
So that countries hear and bring you their tribute,
So that demons hear and avoid (?) you,
So that the powerful hear and bite their lips,
So that mountain peaks hear and bow their heads in terror,
(70) So that the rolling seas hear and are stirred up and destroy their produce,
So that tree trunks are lopped in a mighty grove,
So that the reeds of an impenetrable reed–bed are cut down,
So that people are frightened into controlling their noise,
So that cattle tremble and turn to clay,
So that the gods your fathers see and praise your valor!
Warrior Erra, why did you abandon the battlefield and stay in town?
Even Shakkan’s cattle and wild beasts despise us.
Warrior Erra, we must tell you, and our words will surely be harsh for you,
As long as the whole land is too much for us,
(80) Surely you will listen to our words!
Do a favor for the Anunnaki who love silence!
Sleep no longer pours over the Anunnaki, because of people’s noise.
Cattle are trampling down the pasture land, the life of the country.
The farmer weeps bitterly over his [yield].
The lion and the wolf lay low Shakkan’s cattle.
The shepherd prays to you for his sheep, he cannot sleep by day nor by night.
And we, who know the mountain passes, we have quite forgotten the road!
Spiders’ webs are spun over our campaign gear.
Our trusty bows have rebelled and become too tough for our strength.
(90) The points of our sharp arrows are blunt.
Our daggers are corroded with verdigris for lack of butchery.”
Warrior Erra listened to them.
The speech which the Sebitti made was as pleasing to him as the best oil.
He made his voice heard and spoke to Ishum,
“How can you listen and stay silent?
Open up a path, and let me take the road!
Let me appoint the Sebitti, unrivalled warrior, [to ]
Make them march at my side as my fierce weapons.
And as for you, go ahead of me, go behind me.”
(100) When Ishum heard this,
He made his voice heard and spoke to the warrior Erra,
“Lord Erra, why have you planned evil for the gods?
You have plotted to overthrow countries and to destroy their people, but will you not turn back?”
Erra made his voice heard and spoke,
Addressed his words to Ishum who marches before him,
“Ishum, be silent, and listen to my speech
About settled people whom you say I should spare!
Wise Ishum, who marches in front of the gods, whose advice is good,
In heaven I am a wild bull, on earth I am a lion.
(110) In the country I am king, among the gods I am fierce.
Among the Igigi I am the warrior, among the Anunnaki I am powerful.
Among cattle I am the smiter, in the mountains I am a wild ram.
In the reed–thicket I am Gerra, in the grove I am the magšaru-axe.
In the course of a campaign I am the standard.
I blow like the wind, I rumble like Adad,
I can see the rim of everything like Shamash.
I go out on to the battlefield, and I am a wild sheep.
I go into sheepfolds (?), and I make my dwelling there.
(120) All the (other) gods are afraid of battle,
So that the black–headed people despise (them).
But I, because they no longer fear my name,
And since prince Marduk has neglected his word and does as he pleases,
I shall make prince Marduk angry, and I shall summon him from his dwelling, and I shall overwhelm (his) people.”
Warrior Erra set his face towards Shuanna, city of the king of gods.
He entered Esagila, palace of heaven and earth, and stood in front of him (Marduk),
He made his voice heard and spoke (to) the king of gods,
“Why does the finery, your lordship’s adornment which is full of splendor like the stars of heaven, grow dirty?
The crown of your lordship which made Ehalanki shine like E–temen–anki — its surface is tarnished!”
The king of gods made his voice heard and spoke,
(130) Addressed his words to Erra, warrior of gods,
“Warrior Erra, concerning that deed which you have said you will do:
A long time ago, when I was angry and rose up from my dwelling and arranged for the Flood,
I rose up from my dwelling, and the control of heaven and earth was undone.
The very heavens I made to tremble, the positions of the stars of heaven changed, and I did not return them to their places.
Even Erkalla quaked; the furrow’s yield diminished, and forever after (?) it was hard to extract (a yield).
Even the control of heaven and earth was undone, the springs diminished, the flood-water receded. I went back, and looked and looked; it was very grievous.
The (remaining) offspring of living things was tiny, and I did not return them to their (former) state,
To the extent that I was like a farmer who can hold (all) his seed–corn in his hand.
I made a house and settled into it.
(140) As for the finery which had been pushed aside by the Flood, its surface dulled:
I directed Gerra to make my features radiant, and to cleanse my robes.
When he had made the finery bright, and finished the work,
I put on my crown of lordship and went back to my place.
My features were splendid, and my gaze was awesome!
(As for) the people who were left from the Flood and saw the result of my action,
Should I raise my weapons and destroy the remnant?
I made those (original) Craftsmen go down to the Apsu, and I said they were not to come back up.
I changed the location of the mēsu–tree (and of) the elmešu–stone, and did not reveal it to anyone.
Now, concerning that deed which you have said you will do, Warrior Erra,
(150) Where is the mēsu–wood, the flesh of the gods, the proper insignia of the King of the World,
The pure timber, tall youth, who is made into a lord,
Whose roots reach down into the vast ocean through a hundred miles of water, to the base of Arallu,
Whose topknot above rests on the heaven of Anu?
Where is the pure zagindurû–stone which […] threw away?
Where is Nin–ildu the great carpenter–god of my Anu-power,
Who carries the pure axe of the sun, and knows … timbers,
Who makes [the night (?)] as radiant as day and makes [people (?)] bow down beneath me?
Where is Kusig–banda, creator of god andman, whose hands are pure?
Where is Ninagal, who carries the hammer and anvil,
(160) Who chews hard copper like hide and manufactures tools?
Where are the precious stones, produce of the vast ocean, fitting ornament for crowns?
Where are the Seven Sages of the Apsu, the holy carp, who are perfect in lofty wisdom like Ea their lord, who can make my body holy?”
The warrior Erra listened to him as he stood (?) there.
He made his voice heard and spoke to prince Marduk,
“[…]
[…]
The holy elmešu–stone […].”
When Marduk heard this,
He made his voice heard and spoke to warrior Erra,
(170) “I shall rise up from my dwelling, and the control of heaven and earth will be undone.
The waters will rise and go over the land.
Bright day will turn into darkness.
A storm will rise up and cover the stars of heaven.
An evil wind will blow, and the vision of people and living things will [be obscured (?)].
Gallu–demons will come up and seize […]
Those who are undressed will […] who opposes them.
The Anunnaki will come up and trample on living things.
Until I gird myself with weapons, who can make them go back?”
When Erra heard this,
(180) He made his voice heard and spoke to prince
Marduk,
“Prince Marduk, until you re–enter that house and Gerra cleanses your robes, and you return to your place,
Until then shall I rule and keep firm control of heaven and earth.
I shall go up into heaven, and give orders to the Igigi;
I shall go down to the Apsu and direct the Anunnaki.
I shall send ferocious gallu–demons to Kurnugi,
And I shall set my fierce weapons over them.
I shall tie the wings of the wicked wind like a bird.
At that house which you shall enter, prince Marduk,
I shall make Anu and Ellil lie down like bulls, to right and left of your gate.”
(190) Prince Marduk listened to him,
And the speech that Erra made was pleasing to him.
(Catchline)
He rose up from his inaccessible dwelling and set his face towards the dwelling of the Anunnaki.
Tablet II
He rose up from his inaccessible dwelling and set his face towards the dwelling of the Anunnaki.
He entered … and sto[od before them,]
[Discarded] his radi[ance] and let his rays fall […]
[Because (?)] he had set his face towards another place and no longer […] the earth,
[The winds (?)] rose up, and bright day was turned into darkness.
[…] of the land together […]
[…] went up […]
[…] and the bottom of […]
[…] all of the rim of […]
(gap of 7 lines)
The crown […]
His heart […]
“The mantle of radiance […]
Let Ea in the Apsu […]
Let Shamash see […] and let the people […]
Let Sin look, and at his sign […] to the land
Concerning that work Ea […] is expert (?).”
The warrior Erra was filled with anger,
Why, because of foam on the surface of water, did Marduk
Give the […] of mankind, whom I myself created
To bring promptly the taklīmu–offerings of the Anunnaki,
At the wrong time?
He plotted evil, to devastate the land, to destroy people […]”
(30) Ea–sharru considered, and then he said,
“Now, (it was) prince Marduk who rose up, who told those Craftsmen that they were not to come back up.
Statues of them, which I made among the people, for [his great divinity]
Which no god goes and approaches [ (?) …]”
He gave to the Craftsmen a generous heart, and […]–ed their base.
He bestowed on them wisdom and made their work beautiful.
They made that finery radiant, and more choice (?) than before.
The warrior Erra stood before him night and day without cease;
Whatever (?) was placed there to make the finery radiant for the king of kings, he would say:
“You can’t come near the work!
[…] I shall cut off his life, I shall stretch out his …
(40) […] hasten to the work.
[…] has no rival.
[…] …
[…] shall rival princes.” (?)
[…] his head
[made his finery radiant]
[…] …
[…] at his door.
[…] king Shamash was clothed.
[…] set down his dwelling
(50) […] light was established
[…] assembled.
[…] Marduk
(8 lines fragmentary)
The king of gods made his voice heard and spoke
“[…] and they will go up to heaven.
[…] return to your dwelling.
[…] …
[…] upon your cheek
[…] their people
[…] you did not turn back.”
[…] spoke to the king of gods,
“[…] of the day
(gap of about 17 lines)
[…] father of the gods […]
Ellil […]
The gods, all of them in […]
Among Shakkan’s cattle, all of them […]
Erra among all the gods […]
Among the stars of heaven the Fox Star […]
Was twinkling and its rays […] to him.
The stars of all the gods were dazzling […]
Because they were angry with each other and Prince Marduk […] put […].
(10´) “The star of Erra is twinkling and carries rays, […] of Anunitu.
His mantle of radiance will be activated (?) and all people will perish.
As for (?) the dazzling stars of heaven that carry a sword (?),
As for (?) the titch (?) of creation, the ant, it does not … […].
Among Shakkan’s cattle, their astral image is that of the Fox […]
Endowed with strength, a fierce (?) lion […]
Ellil is the father of populations (?) and he has made the final [decision (?)].”
Innina replied from the gods’ assembly, gave advice […],
[Addressed] her words to Anu and Dagan […],
“Pay attention, all of you, go into your private quarters;
(20´) Cover your lips. Did you not smell the inc[ense–offering (?)]
In the presence of Prince Marduk, nor give advice, nor bese[ech him (?)]?
Until the time is fulfilled, the [hour] is passed,
The word Marduk spoke is like a mountain where trees (?) [grow]; he does not change it (?) […]
Erra […]
(gap of 4 lines)
Ishtar went and they entered the private quarters.
(30´) She urged Erra, but he would not agree […]
Ishum [made his voice heard and spoke],
Addressed [his words to Innina ],
“He has ill–treated (?) […]
Erra is angry and will not be silent […].
Let the mountains be at peace, […] to him.”
Ellil’s lofty son, who does not take the road without the leader Ishum,
Entered Emeslam and made his dwelling there.
He deliberated (?) with himself concerning that work.
But his heart […]; it gave him no reply.
He asked himself, “How can you sit still? (?)
(40´) Open up a path, and let me take the road!
The time has elapsed, the hour has passed.
I promise that I shall destroy the rays of the Sun;
I shall cover the face of the Moon in the middle of the night.
I shall say to Adad, ‘Hold back [your] well-springs,
Drive away the clouds and cut out snow and rain.’
To Marduk (?) and to Ea I shall bring a reminder:
He who grows up in times of plenty shall be buried in times of deprivation.
He who travels out on a path with water shall return along a way of dust–storms.
I shall say to the king of gods, ‘Stay in Esa-gila!’
(50´) They will do as you have told them, they will carry out your command in full.
The black–headed people will revile you, and you will not accept their prayers.
I shall finish off the land and count it as ruins.
I shall devastate cities and make of them a wilderness.
I shall destroy mountains and fell their cattle.
I shall stir up oceans and destroy their produce.
I shall dig out reed–thickets and graves and I shall burn them like Gerra.
I shall fell people and [I shall leave no] life
I shall not keep a single one back!
I shall not leave out any of the cattle of Shak-kan nor any wild beasts [whatsoever].
(60´) From city to city I shall seize the one who governs.
A son will not ask after the health of his father, nor the father of his son.
A mother will happily plot harm for her daughter.
I shall let a [barbarian] enter a god’s shrine where evil men should not go.
I shall let a rogue sit down in the dwelling of princes.
I shall let a wild beast of … enter [cult centers].
I shall stop anyone entering any city which he encounters.
I shall let wild beasts of the mountains go down (into cities).
I shall devastate public places, wherever people tread.
I shall let wild beasts of the countryside which are not … come into the public square.
I shall let a bad omen occur to devastate a city.
(70´) I shall let the demon ‘Supporter of Evil’ enter the gods’ [inaccessible] dwelling.
I shall devastate the royal palace and make it into a ruin [ ( )].
I shall cut off the noise of mankind and deprive him of joy,
Like […] like fire where there was once peace.
[…] I shall let evil enter.”
(Catchline)
[…] he would pay attention to nobody.
Tablet III
[…] he would pay attention to nobody,
The words of caution that they spoke […]
Lions […]
[…]
To […]
“I shall make them take […] and I shall shorten their lifetime,
I shall sever the life of the just man who takes on paternal responsibility,
I shall set up [at the head (?)] the wicked man who cuts off life.
I shall change the minds of people, so that the father will not listen to the son:
(10) The daughter will speak words of rejection to the mother.
I shall make their words wicked, and they will forget their god,
Will speak great insolence to their goddess.
I shall muster the bandit and cut off the highway.
They will even plunder each other’s property in the city center.
The lion and the wolf will fell Shakkan’s cattle.
[…] I shall cause to rage and he will cut off offspring.
I shall deprive the nurse of the baby’s cry and toddler’s prattle.
I shall make Alala leave the pasture.
Shepherd and herdsman will forget the shelter.
(20) I shall cut off the garment from a man’s body
And I shall make the young man walk naked in the city square.
I shall make the young man go down into the Earth unshrouded.
The young man — his supply of sacrificial sheep will be interrupted and endanger his own life.
The prince — his supply of lambs will become too scarce to obtain oracles from Shamash.
The sick man will demand roast meat (perversely) to satisfy his craving.
He will not free for … he will go.
[…] I shall stop the steeds of princes.
[…] I shall cut off.
[…] I shall cause to seize.
(gap of uncertain length)
Rain […]
Evil winds […]
(gap of uncertain length)
“You have (?) set up the weapons of kidinnu-men as an abomination to Anu and Dagan.
You have made their blood flow like water in the drains of public squares.
You have opened their veins and let the river carry off (their blood).
Ellil has cried “Woe!” and clutched at his heart
[He has risen up from] his dwelling.
(80´) An irredeemable curse is set in his mouth,
He has sworn not to drink the river’s waters,
He shuns their blood and will not enter into Ekur.”
Erra addressed his words to Ishum, who marches before him,
“The Sebitti, unrivalled warrior […]
All of them […]
Who […]
Who marches before […]
Who […]
Who like Gerra […]
(90´) In front of the house […]
Who like […]
Who […]
Whom Erra […]
The face of a lion […]
In my rage […]
Open the path, let me take the road!
Let me appoint the Sebitti, unrivalled warrior […].
Make them march at my side as my fierce weapons.
And as for you, go ahead of me, go behind me!”
(100´) Ishum listened to this speech of his;
He felt compassion and said to himself,
“Woe to my people against whom Erra rages and […]
Whom the warrior Nergal, as in the moment of
battle, […] Asakku.
His arms, like those which (slew (?)) the ruined god, are not too weak to slay them,
His net, like that (which overwhelmed) wicked Anzu, is spread to overwhelm them.”
Ishum made his voice heard and spoke,
Addressed his words to the warrior Erra,
“How could you plot evil for gods and men?
Even though you have plotted evil against the black–headed people, will you not turn back?”
(110´) Erra made his voice heard and spoke,
Addressed his words to Ishum who marches before him,
“You know the decisions of the Igigi, the counsels of the Anunnaki.
You give the command for the black–headed people, and gain their attention (?).
How can you speak like one who is ignorant,
Advise me as if you did not know of Marduk’s words to me!
The king of gods has risen up from his dwelling
So how can all the lands stay firm?
He has taken off his lordly crown:
King and princes […] will forget their rites.
(120´) He has undone his girdle:
The belt of god and man is loosened and cannot be retied.
Furious Gerra has made his finery bright as day, and has displayed his radiance.
He holds a mace in his right hand, the great weapon
Of Prince Marduk; his glance is terrifying.
Yet to me you speak […]
Leader of the gods, wise Ishum, whose counsel is good,
How can you now sit and […]
Was Marduk’s word not pleasing to you?”
Ishum made his voice heard and spoke to warrior Erra,
(130´) “Warrior Erra, […]
Trample on the people and […]
Where the cattle […]
The reed–thicket and grove which […]
Now, as for what you say, warrior Erra,
One was put in charge, but you […]
You killed seven and did not spare one.
Cattle […]
Erra, you clash your weapons together
And the mountains shake, the seas surge
(140´) At the flashing of your sword […] they look towards the mountain.
The palace […]”
(gap of uncertain length)
Ishum made his voice heard and spoke to warrior Erra,
“Warrior Erra, you hold the nose–rope of heaven,
You control the whole earth, and you rule the land.
(150´) You made the sea rough and encompass mountains,
You govern people and herd cattle.
Esharra is at your disposal; E–engurra in your hands.
You look after Shuanna and rule Esagila,
You control all the rites and the gods respect you.
When you give counsel, even Anu listens.
The Igigi revere you, the Anunnaki fear you,
Ellil agrees with you. Does conflict happen without you,
Or warfare take place in your absence?
The armory of war belongs to you
(160´) And yet you say to yourself, ‘They despise me!’
(Catchline)
O warrior Erra, did you not fear prince Marduk’s name?
Tablet IV
O warrior Erra, did you not fear prince Marduk’s name?
You have untied the bond of Dimkurkurra, city of the king of gods, the bond of lands!
You have changed your divine nature and become like a human!
You have donned your weapons and entered in,
Into the heart of Babylon, and have spoken like a braggart (?), that you would seize the city.
The sons of Babylon, who have none to take charge of them, like reeds in a reed–thicket, have all gathered about you.
He who is ignorant of weapons is unsheathing his dagger,
He who is ignorant of bows is stringing his bow,
He who is ignorant of battle is making war,
(10) He who is ignorant of wings is flying like a bird.
The weakling covers the master of force;
The fatty is overtaking the sprinter.
To the governor in charge of their shrines they utter great blasphemies.
Their hands have dammed up the city gate of Babylon, the artery of their wealth.
They have thrown firebrands into the shrines of Babylon like looters of the country.
You are the one who marches at the head, and you take the lead for them.
You press down arrows upon Imgur–Ellil until he says ‘Woe is me!’
You have founded a dwelling for Muhra, keeper of its city–gate, in the blood of young men and women.
You are the decoy for the inhabitants of Babylon, and they are the bird;
You ensnared them in your net and caught and destroyed them, warrior Erra.
(20) You left the city and went off elsewhere;
You put on the face of a lion and entered the palace.
The army saw you and donned their weapons.
The governor, who had treated Babylon well, became enraged,
Directed his troops to loot like enemy looters,
Incited the leader of the army to crime,
‘You are the man whom I shall send to that city!
You shall respect neither god nor man.
Put young and old alike to death.
You shall not leave any child, even if he still sucks milk.
(30) You shall pillage the accumulated wealth of Babylon.’
The royal troops were put into units and entered the city.
The bow twanged, the dagger pricked.
You set up the weapons of kidinnu–men as an abomination to Anu and Dagan.
You have made their blood flow like water in the drains of public squares.
You have opened their veins and let the river carry off (their blood).
The great lord Marduk saw and cried ‘Woe!’ and clutched at his heart.
An irredeemable curse is set in his mouth.
He has sworn not to drink the river’s waters.
He shuns their blood and will not enter into Esagila,
(40) ‘Woe to Babylon, which I made as lofty as a date–palm’s crown, but the wind shrivelled it.
Woe to Babylon, which I filled with seeds like a pine–cone, but whose abundance I did not bring to fruition.
Woe to Babylon, which I planted like a luxuriant orchard, but never tasted its fruit.
Woe to Babylon, which I have thrown on to the neck of Anu like a cylinder seal of elmešu-stone.
Woe to Babylon, which I have taken in my hands like the Tablet of Destinies and will not deliver to anyone else.’ ”
Then prince Marduk spoke thus,
“[…] which from time immemorial […]
Henceforth he who would cross from the quayside shall cross on foot.
Henceforth the rope which would go down into the cistern shall not save the life of a single man.
Henceforth they shall drive out the deep–sea fisherman’s boat a hundred leagues into the vast expanse of sea–water with a pole.
(50) Even Sippar, the eternal city, which the Lord of Lands did not allow the Flood to overwhelm, because it was so dear to him;
You destroyed its wall without Shamash’s permission and dismantled its parapet.
Even Uruk, the dwelling of Anu and Ishtar, city of prostitutes, courtesans, and call-girls,
Whom Ishtar deprived of husbands and kept in her (lit. their) power:
Sutean men and women hurl their abuse;
They rouse Eanna, the party–boys and festival people
Who changed their masculinity into femininity to make the people of Ishtar revere her.
The dagger–bearer, bearers of razors, pruning-knives, and flint blades
Who frequently do abominable acts to please the heart of Ishtar:
You set over them an insolent governor who will not treat them kindly.
(60) He persecuted them and violated their rites.
Ishtar was enraged and became angry with Uruk.
She summoned an enemy and despoiled the land like (standing) corn before (flood–) water.
The inhabitants of Parsa would not cease ritual wailing because of E–ugal, which had been contaminated.
The enemy whom you had summoned would not agree to stop.”
Angal replied,
You have made the city of Der into a wilderness;
You have snapped the people within it like reeds!
Like scum (?) on the surface of water you have stopped their hubbub,
And you did not spare me; you delivered me up to the Suteans.
(70) So I, because of my city Der,
Shall not give fair justice, I shall not make decisions for the land.
I shall not give any orders, nor will I open my ear.
The people abandoned justice and took to atrocities.
They deserted righteousness and planned wickedness.
I made the seven winds rise up against the one country.
Anyone who has not died in battle will die in an epidemic.
Anyone who has not died in the epidemic, the enemy will carry off as spoil.
Anyone whom the enemy has not carried off as spoil, thieves will murder.
Anyone whom thieves have not murdered, the king’s weapon will overcome.
(80) Anyone whom the king’s weapon has not overcome, a prince will fell.
Anyone whom a prince did not fell, Adad will wash away.
Anyone whom Adad has not washed away, Shamash will parch.
Anyone who goes out on to the land, the wind will infect.
Anyone who enters his own home, the Croucher will hit.
Anyone who goes up into the heights will die of thirst,
Anyone who goes down into the depths will die by water,
For you encompass the heights and the depths alike.
The city governor will say thus to his mother,
‘Would that I had been obstructed in your womb on the day you bore me,
(90) Would that my life had ended and that we had died together,
Because you delivered me to a city whose walls were to be demolished,
Its people treated like cattle, their god turned smiter,
And because his net is of such fine mesh, even picked men could not draw (their swords), but died by the sword.’
He who sired a son will say, ‘This is my son
And I reared him and he does good in return,’ —
Yet shall I put the son to death and his father shall bury him.
Afterwards I shall put the father to death, and he shall have nobody to bury him.
He who builds a house and says, ‘This is my home,
I have built it and I shall find peace within it,
(100) And when Fate carries me off I shall rest there (forever)’ —
Yet shall I put him to death and vandalize his home.
Afterwards it will be wrecked, and I shall give it to someone else”
(Ishum answers)
“O warrior Erra, you have put the just to death,
You have put the unjust to death.
You have put to death the man who sinned against you,
You have put to death the man who did not sin against you.
You have put to death the en–priest who made
taklīmu–offerings promptly,
You have put to death the courtier who served the king,
(110) You have put old men to death on the porch,
You have put young girls to death in their bedrooms.
Yet you will not rest at all,
Yet you say to yourself, ‘They despise me!’
Yet this is what you tell yourself, Warrior Erra,
‘I shall smite the strong and terrify the weak.
I shall murder the leader of the army and rout the army,
I shall ruin the shrine on top of the temple-tower) and the wall’s crenellations, and destroy the city’s vitality.
I shall tear out the mooring poles and let boats drift downstream,
I shall break the rudder, so that it cannot reach the bank,
I shall rip out the mast and tear out its rigging.
(120) I shall dry out the breast so that the baby cannot live,
I shall block springs, so that small channels cannot bring the waters of fertility.
I shall make Erkalla quake, so that the skies billow,
I shall fell the rays of Shulpae and throw away the stars of heaven,
The roots of trees shall be cut through so that their new growth will not flourish,
I shall destroy the base of the wall so that the top of it sways.
To the dwelling of the king of gods I shall go, so that counsel shall not prevail.’ ”
Warrior Erra listened to him,
And the words that Ishum spoke to him were as pleasing as the best oil.
(130) And Warrior Erra spoke thus,
“Sealanders shall not spare Sealanders, nor Subartian (spare) Subartian, nor Assyrian Assyrian,
Nor shall Elamite spare Elamite, nor Kassite Kassite,
Nor Sutean spare Sutean, nor Gutian Gutian,
Nor shall Lullubean spare Lullubean, nor country country, nor city city,
Nor shall tribe spare tribe, nor man man, nor brother brother, and they shall slay one another.
But afterwards a man of Akkad shall rise up and fell them all and shepherd all (the rest) of them.”
Warrior Erra addressed his words to Ishum, who marches before him,
“Go, Ishum! Take full discretion for the words you spoke!”
Ishum set his face towards the mountain Hehe.
(140) The Sebitti, unrivalled warrior, stormed (?) behind him.
The warrior arrived at the mountain Hehe,
Raised his hand and destroyed the mountain,
Counted the mountain Hehe as (flat) ground.
He lopped the tree trunks in the forest of hašūru-trees
Like […]
He finished off the cities and made of them a wilderness,
Destroyed mountains and struck down their cattle,
Stirred up the seas and destroyed their produce,
Devastated reed–beds and groves, and burnt them like Gerra
(150) Cursed the cattle and turned them into clay.
(Catchline)
When Erra had rested and settled in his dwelling,
Tablet V
When Erra had rested and settled in his dwelling,
All the gods began to look at his face.
The Igigi and the Anunnaki, all of them, were standing in awe.
Erra made his voice heard and spoke to all the gods,
“Keep quiet, all of you, and learn what I have to say!
What if I did intend the harm of the wrong I have just done?
When I am enraged, I devastate people!
Like a hired man among the flocks, I let the leading sheep out of the pen.
Like one who does not plant the orchard, I am not slow to cut it down.
(10) Like one who plunders a country, I do not distinguish just from unjust, I fell (them both).
One does not snatch a corpse from the mouth of a marauding lion,
And where one man is beside himself, another man cannot give him advice!
What would happen if Ishum, who goes before me, were not there?
Where would your provider be, wherever would your en–priest be?
Where would your nindabû–offerings be? You would not (even) smell the incense–offering!”
Ishum made his voice heard and spoke,
Addressed his words to warrior Erra,
“Warrior, be still and listen to my words!
What if you were to rest now, and we would serve you?
We all know that nobody can stand up to you in your day of wrath!”
(20) Erra heard him and his face brightened;
His features lit up like the dawning of a (new) day.
He entered into Emeslam and settled in his dwelling.
Ishum called out and said the key word,
Began to confirm the decision concerning the scattered people of Akkad.
“May the reduced people of the land become numerous again,
May the short man and the tall man go along its paths,
May the weak man of Akkad fell the strong Sutean,
May one man drive away seven (of them) as if they were flocks!
You shall make their towns into ruins and their hills into wildernesses,
(30) You shall bring their heavy spoils into Shuanna,
You shall put the country’s gods who were angry safely back into their dwellings,
You shall let Shakkan and Nissaba (i.e., cattle and grain) go down into the country,
You shall let the mountains bear their wealth and the sea its produce,
You shall let the meadowlands, which you allowed to be devastated, bear their produce!
Then let the governors of all cities, every one of them, haul their heavy tribute into Shuanna,
Let the temples, which were allowed to become damaged, lift their heads (up) as high as the rising sun,
Let the Tigris and Euphrates bring the waters of abundance,
Let the governors of all cities, every one of them, deliver up to the provider of Esagila and Babylon!”
For countless years shall the praises of the great lord Nergal and the warrior Ishum (be sung):
(40) How Erra became angry and set his face towards overwhelming countries and destroying their people,
But Ishum his counsellor placated him so that he let a remnant!
The one who put together the composition about him was Kabti-ilani-Marduk son of Dabibi.
(Some god) revealed it to him in the middle of the night, and when he recited it upon waking, he did not miss anything out,
Nor add a single word to it.
Erra heard and approved it,
And it was pleasing also to Ishum who marches in front of him.
All the other gods gave praise with him.
And the warrior Erra spoke, saying,
“Wealth shall be piled up in the shrine of the god who praises this song!
(50) But whoever discards it shall never smell the incense–offering!
The king who magnifies my name shall rule the world,
The prince who recites the praise of my valiant deeds shall have no rival,
The musician who sings it shall not die in an epidemic.
The words of it will find favor with kings and princes.
The scribe who learns it will survive even in enemy country, and will be honored in his own.
In the shrine of craftsmen where they ever proclaim my name, I shall make them wise,
In the house where this tablet is placed, even if Erra becomes angry and the Sebitti storm,
The sword of judgement shall not come near him, but peace is ordained for him.
Let this song endure forever, let it last for eternity!
(60) Let all countries listen to it and praise my valor!
Let settled people see and magnify my name!”
(Colophon)
Fifth tablet, series “Erra.”
I, Assurbanipal, great king, mighty king, king of the world, king of Assyria,
Son of Esarhaddon king of Assyria, son of Sennacherib king of Assyria,
Wrote, checked, and collated this tablet in the company of scholars
In accordance with clay tablets and wooden writing boards, exemplars from Assyria, Sumer, and Akkad,
And put it in my palace for royal reading.
Whoever erases my written name and writes his own name,
May Nabu, the scribe of all, erase his name.
REFERENCES
Text: Cagni 1969 and 1977. Translation: Dalley 1989:282–315; Foster BM 2:771–805; FDD 132–163.
2. HYMNS AND PRAYERS
PRAYER TO MARDUK (1.114)
Benjamin R. Foster
The harmony and effectiveness of this composition set it apart as a masterpiece.
(1) O warrior Marduk, whose anger is the deluge,
Whose relenting is that of a merciful father,
I am left anxious by speech unheeded,
My hopes are deceived by outcry unanswered,
(5) Such as has sapped my courage,
And hunched me over like an aged man.
O great lord Marduk, merciful lord!
Men, by whatever name,
What can they understand by their own efforts?
(10) Who has not been negligent, which one has committed no sin?
Who can understand a god’s behavior?
I would fain be obedient and incur no sin,
Yes, I would frequent the haunts of health!
Men are commanded by the gods to act under curse,
(15) Divine affliction is for mankind to bear.
I am surely responsible for some neglect of you,
I have surely trespassed the limits set by the god.
Forget what I did in my youth, whatever it was,
Let your heart not well up against me!
Absolve my guilt, remit my punishment,
(20) Clear me of confusion, free me of uncertainty,
Let no guilt of my father, my grandfather, my mother, my grandmother, my brother, my sister, my family, kith, or kin
Approach my own self, but let it be gone!
(25) If my god has commanded (it) for me, let him purify me as with medicaments.
Commend me into the hands of my (personal) god and my (personal) goddess for well–being and life,
Let me stand before you always in prayer, supplication, and entreaty,
Let the fruitful peoples of a well–ordered land praise you.
Absolve my guilt, remit my guilt!
(30) O warrior Marduk, absolve my guilt, remit my guilt!
O great lady Erua–Sarpanitu, absolve my guilt,
O Nabu of the good name, absolve my guilt,
O great lady, Tashmetu, absolve my guilt,
O warrior Nergal, absolve my guilt,
(35) O gods who dwell <in> Anu’s <heaven>, absolve my guilt!
The monstrous guilt that I have built up from my youth,
Scatter it hence, absolve it sevenfold.
Like my real father and my real mother,
Let your heart be reconciled to me.
(40) O warrior Marduk, let me sound your praises!
REFERENCES
Text: Ebeling 1953: No. 61, and duplicates. Translations and studies: Foster BM 2:591–593; FDD 247f.
PRAYER TO GODS OF THE NIGHT (1.115)
Benjamin R. Foster
The short prayers to the “gods of the night” (i.e., the stars) are among the less stereotypical and more creative liturgical poems of the Akkadian canon. Their individualized variations on a common theme may have been inspired by the setting: typically they were recited (and perhaps composed) at night while praying on the roof of the house and with the surrounding city or countryside asleep; see Oppenheim 1959. [WWH]
The noble ones are safely guarded (?), doorbolts drawn, rings in place,
The noisy people are fallen silent, the doors are barred that were open.
Gods of the land, goddesses of the land,
Shamash, Sin, Adad, and Ishtar are gone off to the lap of heaven.
They will give no judgment, they will decide no cases:
The veil is drawn for the night, the palace is hushed, the open land is deathly still,
The wayfarer cries out to a god, even the petitioner (of this omen) keeps on sleeping!
The true judge, father to the orphaned, Shamash has gone off to his bedchamber.
May the princely ones of the gods of the night: brilliant Girra, warrior Erra,
The “Bow,” the “Yoke,” Orion, the “Dragon,”
The Great Bear, the Lyre, the “Bison,” the “Horned Serpent,”
Stand by! In the extispicy I perform, in the lamb I offer, place the truth! a
REFERENCES
Text: Dossin 1935. Translations and studies: ANET 390f.; Oppenheim 1959:295f.; Foster BM 1:146f.
DIURNAL PRAYERS OF DIVINERS (1.116)
Benjamin R. Foster
As with the immediately preceding selection (above, Text 1.115, note 3), divination (here again by means of the entrails) demanded and relied on a “truthful” answer from the deity. To secure such an answer, the divination priest invoked Shamash and Adad, patrons of divination, here in the company of other great deities. [WWH]
O Shamash, I hold up to you seven and seven sweet loaves,
The rows of which are ranged before you.
O Shamash, lord of judgment, O Adad, lord of divination,
Seated on thrones of [gold], dining from a tray of lapis,
Come [down to me] that you may eat,
That you may sit on the throne and render judgment.
In the ritual I perform, in the extispicy I perform, place the truth!
O Shamash, I hold up to you the plentiful yield of the gods, the radiance of the grain goddess.
O Shamash, lord of judgment, O Adad, lord of divination,
In the ritual I perform, in the extispicy I perform, place the truth!
O Shamash, I have laid out for you the plentiful yield of the gods, the radiance of the grain goddess,
O Shamash, lord of judgment, 0 Adad, lord of prayer and divination,
In the ritual I perform, in the extispicy I perform, place the truth!
Take your seat, O valiant Shamash,
Let there be seated with you the great gods,
Let Anu, father of heaven, Sin, king of the tiara,
Nergal, lord of weaponry, Ishtar, lady of battle
Be seated with you.
In the ritual I perform, in the extispicy I perform, place the truth!
REFERENCES
Text: YOS 11:22. Translations and studies: Goetze 1968; Hallo 1991b:144f.; Foster BM 1:148–150, FDD 288–290.
THE SHAMASH HYMN (1.117)
Benjamin R. Foster
This “preceptive hymn” is one of the “literary prayers” of the Babylonians which rise above the level of standard religious texts by their artful poetic construction and diction. Even the length of the composition (precisely 200 lines) seems carefully and deliberately contrived. The object of the poet’s attention is Shamash who, as the all-seeing eye in the daytime sky, plays the role of guardian of justice in Akkadian (as the goddess Nanshe did in Sumerian). In particular he keeps an eye on the merchant travelling far from home and seemingly free of constraints. In the section reproduced here, he is particularly concerned with the merchant’s use of honest weights and measures, a perennial theme in ancient Near Eastern literature. [WWH]
(1) Illuminator of all, the whole of heaven,
Who makes light the d[arkness for mankind] above and below,
Shamash, illuminator of all, the whole of heaven,
Who makes light the dark[ness for mankind a]bove and below,
(5) Your radiance [spre]ads out like a net [over the world],
You brighten the g[loo]m of the distant mountains.
Gods and netherworld gods rejoiced when you appeared,
All the Igigi–gods rejoice in you.
Your beams are ever mastering secrets,
(10) At the brightness of your light, humankind’s footprints become vis[ible].
(95) You blunt the horns of a scheming villain,
The perpetrator of a cunning deal is undermined.
You show the roguish judge the (inside of) a jail,
He who takes the fee but does not carry through, you make him bear the punishment.
The one who receives no fee but takes up the case of the weak,
(100) Is pleasing to Shamash, he will make long his life.
The careful judge who gives just verdicts,
Controls the government, lives like a prince.
What return is there for the investor in dishonest dealings?
His profits are illusory, and he loses his capital.
(105) He who invests in long–range enterprises (?), who returns (even?) one shekel to the … […],
Is pleasing to Shamash, he will make long his life.
He who [commits] fra[ud as he holds the ba]lances,
Who switches weights, who lowers the […],
(His) profits are illusory, and he lo[ses the capital].
(110) The one who is honest in holding the balance, […] plenty of […],
Whatever (he weighs) will be given to him in plenty […].
He who commits fra[ud] as he holds the dry measure,
Who pays loans by the smaller standard, demands repayment by the extra standard,
Before his time, the people’s curse will take effect on him,
(115) Before his due, he will be called to account, he will bear the consequence (?).
No heir will (there be) to take over his property,
Nor will (there be) kin to succeed to his estate.
The honest merchant who pays loans by the [ex]tra (?) standard, thereby to make extra virtue,
Is pleasing to Shamash, he will grant him extra life,
(120) He will make (his) family numerous, he will acquire wealth,
[His] seed will be perpetual as the waters of a perpetual Spring.
For the man who does virtuous deeds, who knows not fraud,
The man who always says what he really means, there will be […],
The seed of evil–doers wi[ll not be perpetual].
(125) The nay–sayers’ speeches are before you,
You quickly analyze what they say.
You hear and examine them, you see through the trumped–up lawsuit.
Each and every one is entrusted to your hands,
You make their omens the right ones for them, you resolve what perplexes.
(130) You heed, O Shamash, prayer, supplication, and blessing,
Obeisance, kneeling, whispered prayer, and prostration.
The feeble one calls you as much as his speech allows him,
The meek, the weak, the oppressed, the submissive,
Daily, ever, and always come before you.
(135) He whose family is far off, whose city is distant,
The shepherd [in] the afflictions of the wilderness,
The herdsman in trouble, the keeper of sheep among the enemy, come before you.
O Shamash, there comes before you the caravan, passing in fear,
The travelling merchant, the agent carrying capital.
(140) O Shamash, there comes before you the fisherman with his net,
The hunter, the archer, the driver of the game,
The fowler among his snares comes before you,
The skulking thief comes before Shamash,
The bandit on the wilderness paths comes before you,
(145) The wandering dead, the vagrant spirit come before you,
O Shamash, you have listened to them all.
You did not hold back (?) those who came before you, you heeded them,
For my sake, O Shamash, do not despise them!
You grant wisdom, O Shamash, to humankind,
(150) You grant those seeking you your raging, fierce light.
[You make] their omens [the rig]ht ones for them, you preside over sacrifices.
You probe their future in every way.
You grant wisdom to the limits of the inhabited world.
The heavens are too puny to be the glass of your gazing,
(155) The world is too puny to be (your) seer’s bowl.
On the twentieth of the month you rejoice with mirth and joy,
You dine, you drink fine brew, the tavernkeep’s beer at wharfside.
They pour barkeep’s beer for you, you accept it.
You are the one who saved them, surrounded by mighty waves,
(160) You accept from them in return their fine, clear libations.
You drink their sweet beer and brew,
You are the one who makes them achieve the goals they strive for.
You release the ranks of those who kneel to you,
You accept prayers from those who are wont to pray to you.
(165) They revere you, they extol your name,
They (?) praise your greatness (?) forever.
REFERENCES
Text: Lambert BWL pls. 33–36 and duplicates. Translations and studies: ANET 387–389; Lambert BWL 121–137; Reiner 1985:68–84; Foster BM 2:531–539; FDD 254–261.
3. LAMENTATIONS AND ELEGIES
A NEO-BABYLONIAN LAMENT FOR TAMMUZ (1.118)
William W. Hallo
This text, of Seleucid date, laments the destruction of the cities of Sumer and Akkad at the hand of the Gutians, a theme strangely out of place two millennia after their historic incursions. So it either represents a late version of a much earlier original or, more likely, a case of deliberate archaizing.
“Oh grieving women of Uruk, (a) oh grieving women of Akkad, I am laid to rest!”
The goddess of Uruk wept, whose female chair- bearer had departed, (ditto), who has been stripped (even) of her loincloth.
The daughter of Uruk wept, the daughter of Akkad was lamenting.
Of the daughter of Larak — her face was shrouded by (her garment down to) its very fringes.
(5) The goddess of Hursag-kalamma wept, who was deprived of her husband.
The goddess of Hulhudhul wept, she who had set up her staff.
The goddess of Siptu wept, whose seven brothers were killed, whose eight brothers-in-law have been laid to rest.b
The goddess of Akkad wept, whose shoe-soles were torn, whose lord in whom she delighted was killed.
The goddess of Kesh wept, sitting in the alleyway, she the lord of whose house a lynx had put and end to.
10) The goddess of Dunnu wept: “For whom the couch, for whom the coverlet?
For whom are guarded by me the coverlets, (now) deathly still?”
The daughter of Nippur wept: “It is for the Gutians to finish the task!”
Her cheeks were sore (from weeping), she was deprived of her husband in whom she delighted.
The goddess of Der (wept): “It is for the Gutians to finish (the task!”)
(15) She whose city was toppled, whose family broken and violated, (wept):
“(Oh women,) weep on account of Uruk, my headband caught in a thornbush.
As for me, I do not know where I stepped in the tempest.
(Oh women,) weep on account of Larak, I am deprived of my saltier (and) cloak.
My eyes cannot look upon my […], the ripping of mothers’ wombs. (20) (Oh women,) weep on account of Nippur. Silence abides with me.
The heavens have covered me.
My throne has been overturned on me.
Bel has deprived me of my consort, the husband in whom I delighted!”
(A lengthy colophon follows.)
REFERENCES
Text: Pinches 1901. Translations and studies: Pinches 1901; Oppert 1901:830ff.; Pinches 1902:477f.; Langdon 1909:263ff., No. XXV; Hallo 1971:718; Lambert 1983; Foster BM 2:838f. (largely followed here).
AN ASSYRIAN ELEGY (1.119)
William W. Hallo
Akkadian poets rarely speak of themselves in the first person (for a notable exception see Foster 1983), so it is doubly curious that in this short poetic dialogue, the chief speaker is a woman who has died in childbirth – from all indications a young bride experiencing her first delivery. Her interlocutor is also apparently a woman, perhaps her mother, perhaps a midwife. Their speeches are here indicated by (Mother) and (Bride) respectively; in the original they are at most implied by a change in intonation, a rising inflection elsewhere associated with interrogative sentences.
(Mother:) Why are you cast adrift like a boat in the middle of a river,
Your thwarts in pieces, your mooring rope cut,
Your face shrouded (as) you cross the river of Inner City?
(Bride:) How could I not be cast adrift, my mooring rope not be cut?
(5) On the day that I bore fruit, how happy I was!
Happy was I, even I, happy my chosen husband!
On the day of my labor-pains, did my face grow overcast?
On the day I gave birth, were my eyes prevented (from seeing)?
With opened fists I prayed to Belet-ili:
(10) “You are the mother of women who give birth — save my life!”
When Belit-ili heard this, she shrouded her face, (saying)
“You are […], why do you keep praying to me?”
[My husband, who lov]ed me, kept uttering his
complaint:
[“Why do you leave] me, the wife in whom I delight?
(15) […] in the course of the years
[Have you haunted] a terrain full of ruins?
[In the In]ner City, have you piteously declaimed a lament?”
[All] those days with my chosen husband was I!
I lived with him who was my lover.
(20) (But) death slunk stealthily into my bedroom.
It has driven me out of my house.
It has separated me, even me, from the presence of my chosen husband
It has set my feet into my terrain-of-no-return.
REFERENCES
Text: Strong 1894:634. Translations and studies: Albertz 1978:54; Reiner 1978:186f.; 1985:85–93; Livingstone 1989:37–39; Foster BM 2:905; FDD 329.
4. DIVINATION
Ann K. Guinan
According to a first millennium text from Assurbanipal’s library, Enmedurannki, an antediluvian king of Sippar, learned oil and liver divination — the secrets of heaven and earth — directly from Shamash and Adad. He in turn taught these arts to learned men in the cities of Sippar, Nippur, and Babylon. While the sources that attest to Mesopotamian divinatory practices span three millennia, it was not until the second millennium that a written Akkadian literature developed around the observation of omens. Once the recording of omens was instituted, divination began to evolve into a complex, literate, and highly venerated discipline. By the first millennium Mesopotamian scholars applied much of their intellectual energy to the practice of divination and the scholarship associated with the omen collections. They produced a vast written record consisting of lengthy omen compendia,2 commentaries, instruction manuals, reports, correspondence related to divination, rituals and prayers.
Although typologies of divinatory practices are notoriously difficult to establish (with one form blending into another), it is useful to distinguish three basic types: 1.) omina oblativa observation of freely offered or unsolicited omens. 2.) Impetrated divination — various techniques for asking a question and directly evoking a response. There is a conceptual difference between techniques designed to elicit omens (omina impetrativa) and the manipulation of divinatory objects such as lots. 3.) mediumistic divination — various practices which utilize a human being as a divinatory vehicle and produce a message in speech or written language. It can involve altered states of consciousness and divine intervention in human cognition. Necromancy, consultation with the dead, is also a form of mediumistic divination. In all cases, a divinatory vehicle in the material world mediates communication between a sensory and suprasensory realm. Divination operates on a case by case basis to address specific situations.
Documents from the Old Babylonian period preserve evidence for a variety of different forms of impetrated divination: observing oil as it is dropped into water (lecanomancy), smoke as it rises from a censer (libanomancy),6 flour scattered on water (aleuromancy), and examination of entrails (extispicy).8 As the tradition developed, scholars increasingly turned to the investigation of unsolicited omens and, except for extispicy, impetrated omens ceased to be part of the standard repertoire. The diviners were attentive to sudden ruptures in pattern, deviations in nature, and to whatever was noteworthy or unusual. While prodigies such as eclipses and monstrous births may have formed the core of divinatory observations, the diviner’s attention inevitably extended to lesser details and minutiae of related events. Celestial and meteorological events, abnormal births, behavior of animals, features of the human habitat, attributes of human physiognomy and behavior were studied not as events to be understood for their own sake, but for their cryptic power to signify.
On the surface, none of the divinatory techniques practiced in Israel whether licit, illicit, or falling somewhere in between, bear strong resemblances to the Mesopotamian divinatory traditions. Fully legitimate forms include divining by Urim and Thummim (Num 27:21; Exod 28:15–30), ephod (1 Sam 14:41; 23:6–12) and “inquiring of YHWH” (1 Sam 14:35–37; 22:10–17; 23:1–12; 30:7–8; 2 Sam 2:1). Dreams could be a legitimate means of obtaining knowledge (Gen 28:10–22; Judg 7:13; 1 Sam 28:6; 1 Kgs 3) or they could be misleading and false (Deut 13:2–6; Jer 29:8). The elusive teraphim, household idols or apotropaic figurines, could also have a divinatory function (Hos 3:4; Ezek 21:21; Zech 10). The prohibitions against foreign divination, qesem and naḥaš in particular (Lev 19:26, 31; 20:6 and Deut 18:10–11, 14), cannot be clearly identified with or connected in any substantial way to specific Mesopotamian forms.
The liver models found at Hazor, Megiddo, Ebla, and Ugarit and the corpus of omen texts recovered from Ugarit clearly attest to a pre–Israelite transmission of Mesopotamian practices to the Levant.12 While the biblical record preserves clear evidence of familiarity with Mesopotamian practices, there is no biblical corollary to the divinatory texts produced in Mesopotamia. There are a few direct references to Mesopotamian practices (Ezek 21:21; Isa 47:12–13; Dan 5:11). Echoes of, or, perhaps, direct references to Mesopotamian texts, find their way into other conceptually very different genres.15
In contrast with Mesopotamia, there was no scholarly tradition associated with divination nor any systematic observation of omens. The signs sent by God (2 Sam 5:24; Judg 7:13–15; 2 Kgs 3:22–23) are significant only in the moment — they never accumulate meaning that carries over from one context to another. All authorized practices are characterized by simplicity and the near presence of God. The divinatory apparatus never becomes disassociated from the divine, it never operates independently, nor does any form take on the artificial quality that long standing practices tend to acquire. Descriptions of specific techniques and paraphernalia are often omitted from the narrative.
Various biblical practices have been explored for a common ancient Near Eastern background or for Mesopotamian parallels. Strong parallels do connect Mesopotamian and biblical accounts of dream interpretation. The texts from Mari provide a rich body of source material for the study of mediated divination.17 Various scholars have argued a parallel to Mesopotamian extispicy. There are references to necromancy in both the Mesopotamian19 and the biblical record (1 Sam 28:3–25; Isa 29:4). While they may share a common cultural context, the evidence on both sides is far too limited to make a determination and consulting the dead is such a basic form of divination that ethnographic parallels may be equally valid. Recent scholarship has sought a general Near Eastern background for divinatory forms, such as teraphim, the Balaam Story (Num 22:7) and aspects of the book of Daniel.
A Mesopotamian psephomancy ritual, LKA 137 (see text 1.127 below), provides the clearest parallel to biblical divination. The technique of casting stones in a ritual context is a marginal practice in Mesopotamia and represented by a single text. Although there is much to be gained by examining the broader Near Eastern background behind various forms of divination, the contrasts between Mesopotamian and biblical divination are more telling than the parallels.
MESOPOTAMIAN OMENS (1.120)
Extispicy a
1. If there is a Hal sign at the emplacement of “the well–being” the reign of Akkad is over.
2. If the entire liver is anomalous — Omen of the king of Akkad regarding catastrophe.
3. Omen of Ibbi–Sin when Elam reduced Ur to tell and rubble.
4. If the “rise of the head of the bird” is dark on the left and the right there will be pitrusta.
5. When you make an extispicy and in a favorable result there is one pitrustu (the extispicy is) unfavorable; in an unfavorable result (the extispicy is favorable).
Behavior of the Sacrificial Sheep
6. If a sheep bites his right foot — raids of the enemy will be constant against my land.
Lecanomancy
7. If (I throw oil (in)to water and) the oil divides itself into two — the sick person will die; for the campaign: the army will not return. b
Anomalous Births: šumma izbu
8. If an anomaly has no right ear — the reign of the king will come to an end; his palace will be scattered; overthrow of the elders of the city; the king will have no advisors; the mood of the land will change; the herds of the land will decrease; you will make a promise to the enemy.
9. If an anomaly has no left ear — the god has heard the prayer of the king, the king will take the land of his enemy, the palace of the enemy will be scattered, the enemy will have no advisors, you will decrease the herd of the enemy, he will make a promise you.
10. If an anomaly’s right ear is cleft — that ox-fold will be scattered.
11. If an anomaly’s left ear is split — that ox–fold will expand; the ox–fold of the enemy will be scattered.
12. If an anomaly has two ears on the left and none on the right — the enemy will take your border city, your adversary will prevail over you.
13. If an anomaly’s horns are on the right — the prince will have auxiliary troops.
14. If an anomaly’s horns are on the left — the enemy: the equivalent.
15. If a ram’s horns protrude from its forehead — that ox–fold will be scattered. c
Celestial Divination d
16. If there is an eclipse of the moon in Nisannu and it is red — prosperity for the people.
17. If Venus wears a black tiara (it means) Sa[turn (?)] stands in front of her.
If Venus wears a white tiara (it means) J[upiter] stands in front of her.…
If Venus wears a green tiara (it means) Mars stands in front of her.
If Venus wears a red tiara (it means) Mercury stands in front of her.
[Co]mmentary to the 61rst Tablet of Enuma Anu Enlil.
The Human Habitat: šumma ālu
18. If a city lifts its head to the heaven — that city will be abandoned e
19. If a city’s garbage pit is green — that city will be prosperous, variant: go to ruin.
20. If there are many messengers in the city — dispersal [of the city.]
21. If a man repairs a moon–disk — his god wil[l always shepherd him] steadfastly.
22. If there are bearded women in a city — hardship will seize the land.
23. If in a man’s house a dog is inscribed on the wall — worry […] f
24. If everything for a banquet in the temple is regularly provided — the house will have regular good fortune.
25. If a god enters a man’s house for a banquet — constant uprising and contention will be constant for the man’s house.
26. If syrup is seen in a house or on the walls of a house — the house will be devastated.
27. If the house makes the sound of a kettle–drum — […]
28. If a man repairs a moon–disk — his god wil[l always shepherd him] steadfastly.
29. If a man repairs a sun–disk — his god wil[l always shepherd him] steadfastly.
30. If a king repairs (the statue) of the god — the god will […]
31. If a man sees the body of a king — t[hat] man […]
32. If there is black fungus in a man’s house — there will be brisk trade in the man’s house; the man’s house will be rich.
33. If there is green and red fungus in a man’s house — the master of the house will die, dispersal of the man’s house. g
37. If a snake crosses from the right of a man to the left of a man — he will have a good name.
38. If a snake crosses from the left of a man to the right of a man — he will have a bad name.
39. If a white cat is seen in a man’s house — (for) that land hardship will seize it.
If a black cat is seen in a man’s house — that land will experience good fortune.
If a red cat is seen in a man’s house — that land will be rich.
If a multicolored cat is seen in a man’s house — that land will not prosper.
If a yellow cat is seen in a man’s house — that land will have a year of good fortune.
40. If “mountain grass” is seen [in a fie]ld inside the city — the field will become fallow, that man will die.
41. If the linen curtain of a temple (in front of the cult statue) looks like a figure — those who have entered that temple will go out and never (re)enter the door. h
Cledonomancy (from šumma ālu)
42. If a kledon (a divinatory sound) answers a man yes twice — deferment (of meaning).
If a kledon answers yes three times — it is a firm yes.
If a kledon answers no to a man two times — attainment of desire
If a kledon answers no to a man 4 times — nipḫu (indeterminate meaning).
If a kledon answers a man on his right — deferment (of meaning)
If a kledon as a pig answers a man to his face — no attainment of desire.
If a kledon (as) a bird answers a man to his face — yes, truly, his prayer will be g[ranted]. i
43. If a man scrapes dirt from his nose — his adversary will submit [to him.]
44. If a man breaks a drinking vessel from which he is drinking — for three days lamentations [will befall him].
So that (the evil) not approach: he should throw its shards in the river and then [it will] not [approach him.]
45. If a woman, her husband dies and a son of her fat[her–in–law marries her — that man will be rich]
46. If a man “goes” (i.e., has intercourse) to a woman lying on (her) back and her feet go around the back of his neck — wherever he goes god, king, and noble will be agreeable.
47. If a man “goes” (i.e., has intercourse) to his brother’s daughter — wherever he goes [there will be] sh[ortages].
So that (the evil) does not approach: Say thus, “God, my strength!” [and then it will not approach him.]
48. If a man “goes” to the daughter of his brother’s daughter — [he will lay his hand] on whatever is not his; he will have profit; the family [will be rich].
49. If a man has sexual relations with an old woman — he will quarrel daily.
50. If a man ejaculates in his dream and is spattered with his semen — that man will find riches; he will have financial gain. i
51. If a man has anal sex with a man of equal status — that man will be foremost among his brothers and colleagues. k
52. If a man divorces his first–ranking wife — unhappiness (until) the end of days, quarrelling will be constant for him, his days will be short.
53. If in a man’s house, a ghost enters the ear of the mistress of the house — mourning will take place in the man’s house.
54. If a severed head laughs — conquest of the army […].
55. If a man laughs in his sleep — he will become very sick.
56. If a man grinds his teeth (while sleeping) — he will experience troubles. l
Oneiromancy m
56. [If] (he dreams) that a dog rips his [garment] — he will experience losses.
57. If a man (dreams) he kisses his penis — what he says will find acceptance; whatever he desires will not be withheld from him.
Physiognomic Omens n
58. If a mole is very white — that man will become poor, very […]
59. If a mole is very green — ditto […]
60. If a mole is very red — he will be ri[ch]
61. If his garment hangs down and is marked with white blemishes — garment of deprivations.
62. If the walls of a house are dotted with very white (spots) — the master of that house will die a death of violence.
63. If a man (while speaking) bites his lower lip — (his word?) will find acceptance.
REFERENCES
Abusch 1995:588–593; Arnaud 1987; Biggs 1969:73–74; Bottero 1974:70–197; Bryce 1975:19–37; Cooper RlA 4:259–270; 1980; Cryer 1994; Deitrich and Loretz 1990; Ellis 1989:127–186; Finet 1982:48–55; Finkel 1983:50–57; 1983–84:1–17; Goetze 1968:25–29; Greenberg 1991:267–271; Greenfield and Sokoloff 1989:201–214; Guinan 1989:227–235; 1990:9–14; 1996a:61–68; 1996b; Hallo 1966:231–242; 1991:267–271; Horowitz and Hurowitz 1992:95–115; Hurowitz 1992a:5–15; Huffmon 1983:355–359; Kraus 1936–37:219–230; 1939; Köcher and Oppenheim 1957–58:62–77; Jeyes 1980:13–32; 1989; Labat 1965; Lambert 1967:126–139; Leichty 1970; 1977:147–154; 1993:238–242; Leiderer 1990; Lieberman 1977:147–154; Long 1973:489–497; Meier 1989:184–192; Meyer 1987; Moren 1980:53–70; Notscher 1928–30:39–42, 51–54; Nougayrol 1963:318–384; Olyan 1994:179–206; Oppenheim 1954–56:49–55; 1956; 1967; 1969:153–165; 1977; Pettinato 1966; Pingree 1993:259–273; Porter 1983; Reiner 1960:23–35; 1995; Rochberg–Halton 1988; Sasson 1983:283–293; 1994:39–40; van Soldt 1995; Starr 1976:241–247; 1983; 1990; Stol 1992:245–276; van der Toorn 1990:203–222; 1985; Vanstiphout and Veldhuis 1995:30–33; Veldhuis 1991:28–44; Walker, Galter, and Scholz 1993; Wolters 1993:291–306.
5. INCANTATIONS
OLD BABYLONIAN INCANTATION AGAINST CATTLE DISEASE (1.121)
D. O. Edzard
(1) There was a whirl[wind] in the sky,
(2) A fire was kindled,
(3) And the “peg” fell
(4) On all the cattle.
(5) It was infected with heat
(6) The kids and the lambs
(7) And also the small ones on the nurse’s shoulder.
(8–9) Address my mother Ningirim.
(10) Let the face of the cattle be bright again,
(11) Let Sumuqan rejoice,
(12) Let the herbs rejoice,
(13) Let the trail resound with merry bleating —
(14–16) (Then) I will most carefully apply lots of little sun disks to the seats of the great gods.
(17) Incantation of sheep infected with the “peg.”
REFERENCES
van Dijk, Goetze, and Hussey 1985:Number 7.
6. RITUALS
RITUALS FROM EMAR
Daniel Fleming
THE INSTALLATION OF THE STORM GOD’S HIGH PRIESTESS (1.122)
This text combines length and variety with minimal loss by tablet breaks to provide the best point of entry for reading Emar rituals. The translation offered here follows the principal tablet, which is large and neatly inscribed, with only one major break on the front side. Four further copies are represented by other fragments, so it is evident that the text had attracted special interest in the diviner’s training system, along with the collected kissu festivals. Sections of the text are marked by horizontal lines drawn across the tablet, though these vary in position from copy to copy. The whole festival centers on the installation itself, which begins on the third day and continues through a seven–day feast, with the priestess settled in her new residence on the last day. A distinct preparatory rite of shaving occupies a day to itself before the installation, and the priestess is designated by lot on the opening day. This unique installation text combines wedding imagery with more widely applied rites for consecration to temple service, but it does not display the sexual aspect attributed to the hieros gamos or sacred marriage. For the sake of simplicity, the text presented here draws from multiple copies with bias toward the fuller version (text A), usually without comment.
Heading (line 1)
Tablet of rites for the high priestess of Emar’s storm god. a
Day 1: The Day of Selection (lines 1–6)
When the sons of Emar elevate the high priestess to the storm god, the sons of Emarb take lots from the temple of NINURTA and grasp them before the storm god.5
The daughter of any son of Emar may be designated.
On the same day they take fragrant oil from the palace and from NINKUR’s temple and place it on her head. d
They offer before the storm god one sheep, one quart jar, and one standard vessel of wine.
They give the diviner one shekel of silver.
They send back to NINURTA’s temple eight dried cakes and one standard vessel along with the lots. During the consecration of the shaving ceremony they consecrate all the godse of Emar with bread and beer.
Day 2: The Day of Shaving (lines 7–21)
The shaving of the high priestess falls on the next day.
One ox and six sheep proceed to the storm god’s temple as the sacrifice of the high priestess. The divine weapon and the high priestess follow them, while the singers walk in front. h
When they reach the storm god’s temple, they shave the high priestess at the entrance of the courtyard gate.
[…] they perform a sacrificial homage before the storm god.10 Her father carries the divine weapon for the sacrificial homage on her behalf.
After they finish the Greater Sacrificial Homage, they give the diviner (one?) shekel of silver, and they sacrifice the one ox and the six sheep before the storm god.
They set before the gods the ritual portion of beef and the ritual portion of mutton.
They set before the gods seven standard loaves, seven dried cakes, and two dried cakes with fruit.
They fill goblets with wine.
The officials who give the consecration–gift (?), the heralds (?), and seven [and seven Hamšaʾu-men] eat and drink at the storm god’s temple. l The men of the consecration–gift (?) receive one standard loaf and one standard vessel of barley–beer each.
The clan head m slaughters one sheep at his house. Once he cooks it, they set five tables with three standard loaves each at the gate of the storm god’s temple, in the room of the high priestess.
One table is for the previous high priestess.15
One table is for the high priestess of Šumi.
One table is for the war–priestess.
One table is for the king of the land of Emar.
One table is [for the king of Šatappi].
On them they set out the mutton and one dried cake with fruit each.
(The tables) receive one jar of barley–beer each and one presentation vessel of barley–beer each.
They offer to all the gods of Emar one standard loaf each, one standard vessel of barley–beer, thick bread, cedar oil, and fruit, which they distribute among the gods.
Just before evening, they take fragrant oil of NINKUR’s temple and of the palace, and the diviner pours it on the head of the high priestessd at the gate of the storm god.
When the men of the consecration–gift (?) leave the storm god’s temple, they bring her [into the house of her father].
The Consecration of the Installation Proper
(lines 22–28)
On the consecration day of the installation, they consecrate all the gods of Emar [with bread and beer].
They lay NINKUR in the house of (the high priestess’s) father, [take] the red wool vestment of [NINKUR’s] temple, and put it on NINKUR.
They set four tables before the gods.
They set one table for the storm god,
one table for […],
and [two tables] on the ground for the underworld gods.
On them they set out twelve fat loaves, […], and standard loaves, four dried cakes each, and four dried cakes with fruit each.
For seven days …
They fill goblets with wine.
[They offer] one ox, one sheep, seven standard vessels of wine, and two bushels [of barley to …].
They set before the gods the ritual portions of the ox and of the sheep, the heads of the ox and one sheep, and seven standard vessels of barley–beer.
Day 3: The Installation (lines 29–48)
The installation of the high priestess falls on the next day.23
One ox [and six sheep proceed to the storm god’s temple as the sacrifice of the high priestess]. The divine weapon and the high priestess follow them, while the singers walk in front.h
They perform the Greater Sacrificial Homage [before the storm god]. The high priestess (herself) carries the divine weapon for the sacrificial homage.
After [they finish the sacrificial homage], they purify the … and bring (the priestess) into the storm god’s temple.
[They sacrifice] the one ox and the six sheep [to the storm god, and …].
The high priestess travels in procession with the divine weapon and the singers.
[They enter the House of Trust, and (provide) one lamb] for Adammatera.
After they leave the House of Trust they go to the House of Fortune. (There,) they [sacrifice one lamb to the storm god] and one lamb for the upright stone of Hebat.25
The high priestess pours fragrant oil on the top of Hebat’s upright stone. On that day (the stone) enters the House of Fortune, but (the high priestess) must not do so.v
They return, and at the storm god’s temple they set before him the ritual portions of the ox and of the six sheep.
They set before the storm god seven standard
loaves, seven dried cakes, and two dried cakes with fruit.
They fill goblets with wine and barley–beer.
Since the men of the consecration–gift (?) and heralds (?) (act as) the servers and the attendants, they may eat and drink as (the storm god’s) servers and attendants.
They set up five tables in the room of the high priestess (’s mourning).
Just as for the Day of Shaving.
Just before evening, they seat the high priestess on her throne, set before her a new table from her father’s house, and set bread on it.
They put on her ears two gold earrings from her father’s house, put on her right hand the storm god’s gold ring,y and wrap her head with a red wool headdress.
They offer fragrant oil for the storm god.
They put in the diviner’s hand a ten–shekel silver coil.
Two of her brothers carry her on their shoulders as she proceeds to the house of her father.
The town elders fall at her feet and present her a seven–shekel silver clasp as her (official) gift.
Her brothers likewise present her lavish gifts.
The divine axe follows her, while the singers walk in front.
Then once she has entered her father’s house, they set the divine axe on NINKUR for seven days.
On the same day, they offer one standard loaf each, one standard vessel of barley–beer each, thick bread, and the meat of NINKUR’s ox, and distribute them among all the gods of Emar.
On the third day of the high priestess’ … festival, the wailing woman gives forth her cry. z
Days 3–9: The Seven–Day Feast (lines 49–58)
For seven days they sacrifice daily two sheep to the gods on behalf of Hebat in the (temple) room (of the high priestess).33
Every day they set before the gods a ritual portion of the meat and the two heads of the sheep.
For seven days they offer daily at the storm god’s temple the heart and the lungs of one sheep, one large standard loaf, one dried cake with fruit, one pot of barley–beer, and one presentation vessel of wine.
When the high priestess is enthroned at her feast, she must present to the storm god and Hebat two gold figurines of one shekel weight.
They sacrifice one lamb to Šaḫru.
The seven and seven Hamšaʾu-men eat and drink for two days in the room of the high priestess, and give her one bushel of barley–flour each with one jug of malt beer.34
In addition, the men of the consecration–gift (?) eat and drink for seven days in her room, receiving seven standard loaves and seven standard vessels of barley–beer each.
The previous high priestess, the high priestess of Dagan Lord of Šumi, the war–priestess, the king of the land of Emar, and the king of Šatappi — their tables, together with beef, mutton, seven dried cakes with fruit, seven pots of barley–beer, and (seven) presentation vessels of barley–beer supply the seven days.
The haunch is for the (past) high priestess of the storm god.
The hock is for the high priestess of Dagan Lord of Šumi.
The boiled meat is for the war–priestess.
The kidney is for the king of the land of Emar.
The kidney is (also) for the king of Šatappi.
Day 9: The Final Day (lines 59–75)
[Text disturbed at lower edge of tablet.]
… They raise up NINKUR and send NINKUR’s red wool vestment back to her temple along with bread and beer.
When the high priestess leaves the (family) house, they cover her head like a bride with a bright sash from her father’s house.
Her two maids embrace her like a bride.hh
Just before evening, one ox, seven sheep, three lambs, along with a torch and the singers proceed in front of her, while the divine axe follows behind.
She enters the House of Trust to sacrifice one lamb for Adammatera.
After she leaves the House of Trust she proceeds to NINKUR’s temple. (There,) she sacrifices one lamb to NINKUR and sets out three standard loaves for the gods.
After she leaves NINKUR’s temple she proceeds to the temple of the storm god.
(There,) she sacrifices one lamb to the storm god, sets seven standard loaves before the gods, and fills goblets with wine.
The men of the consecration–gift (?) and the town elders follow, to eat and drink at the storm god’s temple.
They send back to the house of the clan head the above ox and seven sheep which proceeded in front of the high priestess.
After the town elders have eaten and drunk, they give one fine robe as her garment, as well as one bed, one chair, and one footstool.
On this bed they spread one Akkadian blanket from her sacred wardrobe.
They set up Hulelu’s table at the entrance to its head kk and set on this table three standard loaves each, one dried cake with fruit, one standard vessel of wine, and a woven garment.
The singers chant for Hulelu and perform the rites of this table.
Then her sister washes her feet, and they place one silver ring of half–shekel weight in the water that washed her feet, which her sister receives.
The high priestess ascends her bed to lie down.
Administration (lines 76–94)
On the seventh day, the men of the consecration-gift (?) slaughter at her father’s house the one ox that proceeded in front of the high priestess and divide it among themselves.
The representative of the king of the land receives the kidneys of the ox plus his share.
The diviner receives the half–cut plus his share, the head, the intestines, the fat, and the hide.
The singers receive the lungs plus their share.
The men of the consecration–gift (?) eat half of its intestines.
Among the four tables which they set up for the gods, two of them are pure tables and two impure.
The diviner and the singers divide among themselves (as follows):
The diviner and the singers also divide among themselves the hides of all the sheep.
The diviner receives the three ox hides.
For the seven days, the diviner and the singers receive one standard loaf and one pot of barley-beer each.
The diviner receives the half–cut of the oxen and the sheep for all the days.
The singers receive the lungs of all the oxen and the sheep.
They distribute the meat of the ox sacrifice among the gods.
When the high priestess is enthroned at her banquet, five shekels are the gift for the diviner and one shekel is the gift for the singers.
In a good year, they give her from the House of Trust thirty bushels of barley. In a bad year, she receives fifteen bushels of barley.
From the House of the Gods they give her six hundred (shekels) of wool, two jars of oil, one juglet of oil, four hundred (shekels) of aromatics, five store–jars of wine, two racks of grapes, two racks of apples, two racks of apricots, one pot of milk, one large (pot) of soured milk, one bushel of emmer, one bushel of aromatics, three quart jars of malt beer, two pairs of sandals, two pairs of boots, two gazelles, two fish, and four pigeons — per annum.
When the high priestess goes to her fate, they slaughter one ox and one sheep at the temple.44
They offer to Šaḫru one sheep, one juglet of oil, a standard vessel, and two …
The diviner receives the hide of the above ox.
One sheep …
These items belong to the house of her father. The town (gets) nothing.
THE ZUKRU FESTIVAL (1.123)
In a culture that generally observed two axes in the turn of the year, at spring and autumn, the term “new year” is often too loosely applied. Nevertheless, the Israelite feasts of Unleavened Bread and Booths and the Mesopotamian akītu festival do occupy these key turning points in the annual cycle, with special significance for public religious commitments. Emar’s zukru festival provides a first early Syrian representative of this practice, attested in one primary tablet, with a badly broken alternative text, and various related fragments of indeterminate relation to these two tablets.
The shorter, broken zukru tablet displays a simpler, perhaps older annual event, which the large tablet translated here has magnified into by far the most lavish rite in the Emar collection. In this expanded form the zukru is celebrated every seventh year, with one year’s preparation, under a “festival” rubric omitted from the short text. This zukru festival is divided into two parts, one focused on offering and the second focused on procession. They repeat the same calendar, which allows restoration of missing dates. Whereas the shorter form shows provision only from “town” supplies evidently administered outside the palace, the long zukru festival introduces extensive royal sponsorship. In spite of this evidence of the king’s ambition, the festival itself gives him no active role, and the event preserves an ancient dedication of the town to its chief god Dagan at a shrine of stones outside the city walls that recalls Dagan’s rule before construction of the town and its temples.
This large zukru tablet is composed in four columns, neatly inscribed.
Part I, Offerings (lines 1–173)
Column I
First Month of 6th Year (lines 1–6)
[8–10 lines missing at top]
… one pure lamb …
… from its midst …
24th Day of Niqali (Second Month), 6th Year (lines 7–13)
[During the month of Niqali] on the 24th day, they distribute to all the gods from the king one (?) gallon of barley bread, two store jugs of …
They enclose [one sheep for Dagan Lord of the] Firstborn;
likewise one sheep for the storm god, one sheep for the Sun, [one sheep for Dagan, one] sheep for Ea, one sheep for the Moon,5 one sheep for NINURTA, [one sheep for Nergal] Lord of Trade, one sheep for the Lord of the Horns,7 one sheep for NINKUR, [one sheep for Bēlet-ekalli], one sheep for Aštart of the Warrior — these sheep … they enclose.
25th Day of Niqali, 6th Year (lines 14–34)
[During the month of Niqali on] the 25th [day], all the gods and the Šaššabēyānātu-spirits [go out (in procession).]
… Dagan Lord of the Brickwork goes out, his face covered.
Two calves and six sheep from the king, with [two (?) sheep] from the town, proceed in front of Dagan.
They offer to Dagan from the king one gallon and one quart of (barley–)mash bread, [one quart] of barley bread, one flagon and one bowl (?) of wine.
(Additionally,) one gallon and one quart of (barley)-mash bread, [one quart] of barley bread, one flagon, and one jar are provided by the House of the Gods.
One gallon of (barley–)mash bread, four gallons of [barley bread, and four] store jugs are provided for the people.
They sacrifice to Dagan one calf and one pure lamb.
Among them, from precious stones …
They offer to NINURTA:
two sheep from the king and one from the town;
one gallon and one quart of (barley–)mash bread, one quart of barley bread, one flagon and [one] bowl from the king;
one quart of (barley–)mash bread and one jar from the House of the Gods.
Šaššabētu of NINURTA’s temple goes out (in procession) to the Gate of the Upright Stones.
They offer to Šaššabētu:
one calf and six sheep from the king, and one sheep from the town;
one gallon and one quart of (barley–)mash bread, one quart of barley bread, one flagon and one bowl of wine from the king;
one gallon and one quart of (barley–)mash bread, one quart of barley bread, and one flagon from the House of the Gods.
They bring out Bēlet-ekalli, and the Moon and Sun of the palace in procession to the Gate of the Upright Stones.
One calf and ten sheep from the king proceed in front.
They offer before (these gods) three gallons and three quarts of (barley–)mash bread, three quarts of barley bread, three jars and three bowls of wine.
One gallon of (barley–)mash bread, four gallons of barley bread, and four store jugs (of drink) from the palace are provided for the people.
Total: four calves and forty sheep for the consecration.
After eating and drinking they rub all the stones with oil and blood.e
In front of the Battle Gate they perform a sacrificial homage for all the gods with a ewe,g two pair of thick loaves made of (barley–)mash bread, and one jar from the king.
That one ewe is to be burnt for all the gods.
The breads, the beverages, and the meat go back up into the town.
14th Day of First Month, 7th Year (lines 35–40)
During the next year they perform the zukru festival.
During the First Month, on the 14th day, they enclose for all the seventyj gods of Emar seventy pure lambs from the king, …, thick bread, oil, and three store jugs.
They give seven of those sheep to the seven sowing–men of the palace.
They enclose one calf and one lamb for Dagan Lord of the Firstborn.
Also the people and the gods go out in procession a second time on the later day of the zukru festival.
They enclose the same (for) the others. a
15th Day of First Month, 7th Year — Start of zukru (lines 41–60)
They perform (the zukru festival) on the next day, the 15th or Šaggar-day.
They bring out Dagan Lord of the Firstborn, NINURTA, Šaššabētu of NINURTA’s temple, Bēlet-ekalli, the Moon and Sun of the palace, all the gods and the Šaššabēyānātu-spirits … in procession to the Gate of the Upright Stones.
[ (A number of calves and pure lambs)] from the king and ten lambs from the town proceed in front of Dagan.
They offer to Dagan:
[one gallon and quart] of (barley–)mash bread, one quart of barley bread, one flagon and one bowl of wine from the king;
[one gallon and one quart of (barley–)mash bread, one quart of] barley bread, and one flagon from the House of the Gods.
[One gallon of (barley–)mash bread, four gallons of barley bread,] and four store jugs from the House of the Gods are provided for the people.
(They offer to NINURTA:)
[ (a number of calves and lambs) from] the king, and two lambs from the town;
one gallon and one quart of (barley–)mash bread, one quart of barley bread, [one flagon, and one] bowl from the king;
one quart of (barley–)mash bread and [one] jar from the House of the Gods.
They offer to Šaššabētu:
[ (a number of calves and lambs)] from the king, and two lambs from the town;
[one gallon and one quart] of (barley–)mash bread, [one quart of barley bread, one] flagon and one bowl of wine from the king;
one gallon and one quart of [ (barley–)mash bread], one quart of barley bread, and [one flagon] from the House of the Gods.
They offer to Bēlet-ekalli, and the Moon and Sun of the palace:
[ (a number of calves and)] lambs from the king;
three gallons and three quarts of (barley–)mash bread, [three quarts] of barley bread, three jars, and [three bowls] of wine from the king.
After eating and drinking they anoint the upright stones with oil and blood.e
Just before evening, they bring the gods back up into the town.h
[In front] of the Battle Gate they perform the Lesser Sacrificial Homage. They burn for all the gods one ewe,g one jar, and [two] pairs of (barley-) mash breads from the king.
[The breads, the beverages], and the meat go back up [into the town].
15th–21st, First Month, 7th Year — Seven–Day Feast (lines 61–151, 168–173)
Column II
[13–15 lines missing]
… they perform.
… of the eight sacrificial homages …
… jar(s), pomegranates, birds from the king …
For the seven days of the zukru festival they serve all the gods of Emar.
[They offer] to Dagan Lord of the Firstborn:
one calf and ten pure lambs, one gallon and one quart of (barley–)mash bread, one quart of barley bread, one [flagon], and one bowl from the palace.
To the storm god, just as to Dagan [Lord of the Firstborn];
To Dagan — ditto;
To Ea — ditto;
To the Moon and Sun — ditto;
To NINURTA — ditto;
To Alal [and Amaza — ditto];
To Nergal [Lord of Trade — ditto];
To Nergal [Lord of Horns — ditto];
To NINKUR, [Šaggar, and Ḫalma — ditto];
To Bēlet-ekalli — [ditto];
To Aštart of the Š[ubu (?) — ditto]
To the Moon of the Palace [— ditto]
To the Sun of the Palace [— ditto]
To Dagan of the Palace [— ditto]
To Aštart of […];
To Aštart of […];
To Aštart of […];
To ….
Five lambs from the king; one quart of (barley)-mash bread, one quart of barley bread, and [one flagon from the palace]:
To Dagan Lord of … — ditto;
To two Dagan Lord of Creation, n two pairs — [ditto];
To Anna of … [— ditto];
To Dagan Lord of the Camp, just as for Dagan Lord of … [— ditto];
To Dagan Lord of Habitations — ditto;
To Aštart of the Abi and Yāmu, two pair — ditto;
To …;
To Aštart of … — ditto;
To Išḫara Lady of the Town — ditto;
To Išḫara of the King — ditto;
To Išḫara of the Prophetesses [— ditto];
To Hanana of the Palace — ditto;
To Hanana of the city — ditto;
To Udḫa — ditto;
To Aštar — ditto;
also to all these gods, vessels … .
Two lambs from the king; one quart of (barley)-mash bread, one quart of barley bread, and one jar [from the palace]:
To the Lord of the Hill–Country — ditto;
To Dagan Lord of the Valley — ditto;
To Dagan Lord of Šumi — ditto;
To Dagan Lord of Buzqa — ditto;
To Dagan Lord of Yabur — ditto;
To Aštart of … — ditto;
To … of the House of Trust — ditto;
To …;
To …;
To two …;
To Mu– …;
To Šaggar …;
To the Lord of Akka …;
To the Lord of Imar;
To the Storm God Lord of …;
To Gašru …;
To the Lord of Shade and Protection …;30
To the Lord of Buzqa …;
To the Lord of Yabur …;
To the Lord of the Fortress (?) …;31
Column III
[To the Seven Couns]elors of the Seven Gates — ditto;
To … — ditto;
To the Seven — ditto;
To Halaba — ditto;
To the Lord of Šagma — ditto;
To the Storm God of Mount Bašima — ditto;
To Nawarni — ditto;
To two pair of Baliḫ-River Deities of the Palace
Garden — ditto;
To NINURTA of the Burnt Offerings — ditto;
To the Storm God Lord of Imar — ditto;
To NINURTA Lord of … — ditto;
To Aštart Lady of Ani — ditto;
To the Baliḫ-River Deities of … — ditto;
To NINKUR Lady of the Wadi — ditto;
To NINKUR Lady of the Circle — [ditto];
To Dagan Lord of Shade and Protection — ditto;
To Dagan Lord of the Fortress — ditto;
To the Baliḫ-River Deities of … — ditto;
To the Lord of Rabbâ — ditto;
To NINKUR Lady of the Quiver — ditto;
To Dagan Lord of the Quiver — ditto;
To Dagan Lord of … — ditto;
To the Sarta clan deity — ditto;
To NINKUR of the Gate of the Sarta clan — [ditto];
To the Storm God of the House of Fortune — ditto;
To the Upright Stone of Hebat — ditto;37
To the Lord of …;
To …;
To …;
[26–30 lines broken, to end of column]
Column IV
21st Day, First Month, 7th Year — Day 7 of Seven–Day Feast (lines 168–173)
… the wagon [of Dagan passes] between [the upright] stones, his [face] uncovered.
He proceeds [to] NINURTA, whom they have mount (the wagon) [with] him.
The divine [weapon] follows him.
When they reach the Battle [Gate], they perform the Lesser Sacrificial Homage.
They burn for all the gods [one ewe, two] pair of thick loaves, and [one] jar from the king.
They anoint the stones [with oil and blood].e
… tamarisk to the gods …
Part II, Procession
Heading (lines 174–175)
When the sons of Emar give the zukru festival [to] Dagan Lord of the Firstborn during the seventh year: t
15th Day, First Month, 6th Year (lines 175–184)
During the sixth year, in the First Month, on the 15th [day], the Šaggar-day, they bring out Dagan Lord of the Firstborn in procession, his face uncovered.
They perform the Lesser Sacrificial Homage before [him] at the Gate of the Upright Stones.u
After they sacrifice, eat, and drink, they cover his face.
The wagon of Dagan passes between the upright stones.
He proceeds to [NINURTA], whom they have mount (the wagon) with him, their faces covered.
[On] the same day, they purify all the oxen and the sheep.
On the same day, once they bring out [all the] gods, just before evening they bring out Šaggar … from NINURTA’s temple, from the House of Trust.
Also, the [breads and the meat which were before (all) the gods] go back up into the midst of Emar.
25th Day of Niqali, 6th Year (lines 185–190)
During the month of Niqali, [on the 25th day,] they bring out [Dagan] Lord of the Firstborn and all the gods in procession to the Gate of the Upright Stones.
His [face] is covered for both his departure and his return.
From that day, the calves, the pure lambs, …
The wagon of Dagan passes between the upright stones.
He proceeds to NINURTA;
also the breads and the meat which were before the gods go back up into the midst of the town.
14th and 15th Days of First Month, 7th Year (lines 191–199)
During the next year, in the First Month, on the 14th day, they distribute the enclosed lambs a to the gods.
On the next day, the 15th or Šaggar(–day), they bring out Dagan Lord of the Firstborn along with all the gods and the Šaššabēyānātu-spirits in procession to the Gate of the Upright Stones.
Dagan’s face is covered for his departure.
They give to the gods the offerings as prescribed on the tablet.
They bring out in procession Dagan the very father and Šaggar on the same day.
Also, the Šaggar(–day) breads for all Emar go back up.
Just before evening, Dagan passes between the upright stones.u
They cover his face.
In the Battle Gate they perform the rites just as for the consecration day.
The breads and the meat which were before the gods go back up into the town.
20th Day, First Month, 7th Year — Day 6 of Seven–Day Feast (lines 200–201)
On the sixth day they distribute the enclosed lambs to the gods, just as (mentioned) previously.46
21st Day, First Month, 7th Year — Day 7 of Seven–Day Feast (lines 202–209)
On the seventh day Dagan, along with all the gods and the Šaššabēyānātu-spirits, goes out in procession, his face covered.
They give the ritual requirements to the gods just as for the day (mentioned) previously.
All the meat and breads, everything which they eat, from the [seven] days and from between the upright stones they take up and [place] in return.
Nothing goes back up into the midst of the town.
After the fire, just [before evening] …
They uncover Dagan’s face.
The wagon of Dagan passes between the upright stones.
He proceeds to NINURTA, [whom they have mount (the wagon) with him.]
They perform the rites just as for the day (mentioned) previously.
Part III, Administration
Heading (line 210)
… they consecrate the zukru festival …
[14–16 lines missing to bottom of column IV]
Summary Statement (lines 211–212)
Left edge
Total: 700 lambs, 50 calves.
Twelve calves to the gods …
SIX MONTHS OF RITUAL SUPERVISION BY THE DIVINER (1.124)
This tablet belongs to a separate type entirely from the previous two festivals. It is much smaller, especially relative to the material squeezed onto it, and is written in a cramped script with distinct sign forms. Instead of treating one ritual event, this text gathers diverse rites for unrelated cults, apparently united by involvement of the official who calls himself the diviner.
The tablet is divided into four columns. The first treats one month and the last covers four; the third touches two months, the earlier one evidently completed on the same day left at the end of column I. Although certainty remains elusive, the text most likely was created to address six months from fall to spring, one half–year between the major ritual axes of the calendar. The full moon of the first month, defined as autumn by preparation for sowing at the top of column III, dominates the text with several concurrent events, likely including a simpler annual observance of the zukru (lines 8–10, for Dagan).
Column I
Heading (line 1)
[Tablet of the] rites of the town.
Month of Zarati, 8th Day (lines 2–6)
[The month of Zarati:]
[On] the 8th day, …
… one sheep
… from …
… at the temple …
… they gather.
Month of Zarati, 14th Day? (lines 6–7)
On the [14th] day, [they enclose a lamb for Dagan]. …
Month of Zarati, 15th Day (lines 8–57)
On the 15th day, Dagan [goes out in procession …]5
They give … a sheep from the fire–lighters …
The … –men [feast].
On the same day, [NINURTA of the] Amit [Gate] goes out in procession.
They give … (to someone, some provision) from the House of the Gods.
… a sheep from the fire–lighters [proceeds in front of him].
The divine axe [follows him], and the whole populace …
They place the …
On (a day …), they enclose (a lamb) …
On the [same] day …
… goes into the great gate of (some god’s) temple …
… two sheep in the temple …
(Some participants) feast on bread and beer from the House [of the Gods].
On the day …, they enclose [a lamb at] the temple of NINURTA.
[NINURTA] goes out in procession to the great gate.
An ox [ (and sheep?) …] proceed in front of him.
…
[The diviner] receives the right breastc for …
The hide, the head, … belong to the diviner.
The chiefs and the men of the countryside eat [and drink] (some food).
In the temple of (NINURTA or Išḫara) … they slaughter the ox.
[They give (some parts) to] NINURTA of
Išḫara’s temple.
They offer (some part).
The … –meat and the hocks are for the leaders, and they give [the … –meat] to the slaughterer.
The kinsmen of Udḫa’s temple receive (some part).
The leaders and the whole populace eat the breast before Išḫara.
The diviner receives the head.
They place …
The divine axe …
Column II [40 lines, only some traces at right edge]
Column III
… they slaughter these sheep.
He offers their …, along with the breast-meats.
The divine axe follows them.
Also, the hides of the sacrificed (animals) belong to the diviner.
On the 15th day, they bring Šaggar down to the cattle barn, and (perform) sacrifice.
They slaughter one sheep at the horse stables.
On the same day, in the evening, they bring out (a procession).
They slaughter one sheep for the fire–lighters, one sheep for the Garden of the Storm God’s Pool, and a sheep for Dagan Lord of the Seed.
The diviner casts down seed.
… –bread from the House of the Gods, cups (of drink), and the meat of the right breast belong to the diviner.
On the next day at dawn … they slaughter (a sacrifice) for Dagan and perform sacrificial homagese for lasting days (?) and difficulty (?).
Until they finish the sacrificial homages, no one may go out to plant.
Month of NINKUR (lines 58–74)
The month of NINKUR:
On the 17th day they enclose a lamb for NINKUR.
On the 18th day NINKUR goes out in procession.
One fine white sheep (comes) from the fire-lighters.
Bread and beer from (some person) the men of the consecration–gift … [eat and] drink.
Contract-bread … ghee,
in the contract–bread …
the diviner …
the diviner …
a lamb …
[on the] 19th [day] …
… [proceeds] in front.
[The divine axe follows] behind.
…
[5–7 lines missing]
…
… a sheep to (some god) …
… a sheep to (another god) …
… one sheep to …
…
Column IV
Month of Anna (lines 77–82)
The month of Anna:
The fire–lighters, along with the Hamšaʾu-men give [bread] and beer to Adammatera.26
One sheep for the Abi of the House of the Gods, one sheep for the temple of Dagan, and one sheep for the town — these sheep (come) from the fire–lighters.
The diviner receives these hides.
Month of Adamma (lines 83–85)
The month of Adamma:
The return–ceremony of Illila falls on the 7th day.
The return–ceremony for all the gods falls on the 8th day.
Month of Marzaḫāni (lines 86–95)
The month of Marzaḫāni:
The Buqaratu fall on the 14th day.
On the 16th day she goes out in procession from the crossroads.
A sheep (comes) from the town.
Also, the divine axe follows from the crossroads.
The Hunt of Aštart falls on the same day.
The Hunt of the Storm God falls on the 17th day.
They burn at the Hurrian (?) temple one sheep from the fire–lighters.
The Marzaḫu-men of the fellowship (?) bring a standard loaf to the gods.33
Half of the one sheep belongs to the diviner.
Month of Halma (lines 96–119)
The month of Halma:
On the second day they perform sacrificial homages at the temple of Dagan.
In the evening they fill goblets with wine and burn a bird.
The New Moon of Dagan falls on the third day.36
One sheep (comes) from the town.
The divine axe takes up residence in the temple.
The sheep’s hide belongs to the diviner.
On the 8th day Halma goes out in procession.
The divine axe follows after him.
One sheep (comes) from the town.
The men of the consecration–gift (?) feast.
The bread and the beer belong to the diviner.
On the same day, they enclose a lamb at the temple of the Storm God.
On the 9th day the Storm God of Canaan i goes out in procession.
An ox and six sheep proceed to his temple.
Among them, …
… the temple of Dagan Lord …
… the servers … he receives …
…
The hides, the intestines, the fat … belong to the diviner.
… the kidneys … belong to the king of the
land.
(Left Edge)
The Hiyaru of the Storm God falls on the 18th day.
They slaughter an ox and two sheep.
The men of the consecration–gift (?) eat and drink.
TWO MONTHS JOINED BY THE UNDERWORLD, WITH BARRING AND OPENING OF DOORS (1.125)
Emar’s tablet of rites for the month of Abî focuses on observances at the middle and end of the moon’s cycle, set in a frame of offerings through the remaining intervals. The largest section of the text addresses rites at various abû shrines, with a central event on the 26th day, when “they bar the doors.” This act is carried out with the last visibility of the lunar crescent and has its complement in the first line of a second tablet, which begins on “the day of opening the doors.” Although the second tablet does not name a month, comparison of these two tablets with the fifth and sixth of the diviner’s six–month collection confirms the sequence. Rites following the opening of doors therefore belong to the New Moon celebration for Dagan which is identified in the six–month tablet during the month of Halma. Both tablets are presented together in order to display both parts of the event which links them, through the waning and then the new appearance of the moon.
First Tablet
Frame Part 1 (lines 1–8)
During the month of Abî on the day of declaration, they distribute among the gods:
two gallons and two quarts of second quality flour, one store jug, ten doves, one juglet of oil, and one quart of raisins.
On the 3rd day, they offer to Aštart of the Abî:
one quart of second quality flour, barley, …, (one) flagon, and one jar from the House of the Gods;
one female kid from the fire–lighters;
… cedar oil, barley, ghee, one hundred (shekels) of aromatics, one standard vessel, one brick of figs, ten pomegranates, and raisins from the palace.
On the same day, as the offering to Mount Šinapši:
one quart of (barley–)mash, two quarts of second quality flour, (one) standard vessel, one dove, fruit, and oil.
On the 8th day, they distribute among the gods:
two gallons and two quarts of second quality flour, one store jug, ten [doves, one] juglet of oil, and one quart of raisins.
Also on the 8th day, as the offering for Mount Šinapši:
one quart of (barley–)mash, two quarts of second quality flour, a store jug, … [one] standard vessel, fruit, oil, and one dove.
Mid–Month Observance (lines 9–26)
On the 14th day, they offer to Aštart of the Šubu:
two gallons and one quart of (barley–)mash, one flagon, one standard vessel, … [one brick of figs,] and ten pomegranates.
With bread and beer, …
On the same day, (as the offering to …):
one gallon and one quart of (barley–)mash, one flagon, one standard vessel … [from the House of the Gods (?)];
one gallon and one quart of (barley–)mash, one … –vessel from the king (?);
one gallon and one quart of (barley–)mash, one … [from …].
They offer to Aštart of the Šubu:
…
During the days of the sacrificial homages, they offer to Aštart of the Pools:
…
They give to them:
… one gallon of breads, barley flour, and one flagon.
They offer to Aštart of the Abî:
… from the House of the Gods;
one sheep from the fire–lighters.
[On the 16th day,] they offer (to …):
… one flagon, and sweet cakes.
They bring in with her with wailing cries …
They bring in …
The Hunt is on the same day.
They bring out from the storehouse, … the crossroads …
The Hunt of Aštart is on the 16th day.
[On the 17th day, (they offer …)]:
… a jar, and one standard vessel from the House of the Gods;
…
On the same day, (they offer …):
… one standard vessel from the House of the Gods.
They bring out the divine weapon …
They make offering behind the temple of NINURTA.
They perform …
Frame Part 2 (lines 27–30)
[On the 19th] day, [… gallons and … quarts] of (barley–)mash, three standard vessels, one brick of figs, ten pomegranates, and one hundred (shekels) of aromatics — on the 19th day these go out in procession.
On the 20th day they offer them.
… offering …
They offer to Mount Ṣuparatu:
… sheep from the king;
two quarts of (barley–)mash, two quarts of second quality flour, one gallon of barley flour, and one store jug from the House of the Gods;
one sheep from the fire–lighters;
one [quart (?)] of abluṣu–flour.
On the 20th day, as the offering for Mount Šinapši:
one quart of (barley–)mash, one quart of second quality flour, one standard vessel, one dove, fruit, and oils.
Barring the Doors at the Last Lunar Crescent (lines 31–52)
On the 25th day, they offer to the abû of the House of Trust:
one half gallon of (barley–)mash, two gallons of barley flour, one store jug from the House of the Gods;
one standard vessel, one brick of figs, ten pomegranates, one sheep from the fire–lighters, and one dove.
On the same day, they give to the abû of NINKUR’s temple:
two grasping loaves, second quality flour, one dove, and fruit.
On the same day, they perform the Greater Sacrificial Homage at the Cemetery Gate,b with:
one gallon of barley flour, two quarts of second quality flour, one flagon, two sheep from the king, one standard vessel, and twenty-five Hurrian (?) birds.
On the 26th day, up to the time of barring the doors of the Gate15 they offer to all the gods:
two gallons of barley flour, two store jugs, twelve sheep from the fire–lighters, five sheep from the shepherds, and one juglet of oil.
Then they bar the doors.
On the same day, they offer to the abû of the palace:
one gallon and one quart of (barley–)mash, one gallon of second quality flour, two gallons of barley flour, two store jugs, and one standard vessel of wine from the palace;
one ox, one sheep, one gazelle, one bird, honey, oil, ghee, and fruit.
On the same day,
for the abû of Dagan’s temple: two grasping breads, second quality flour, one dove, and fruit;
for Alal’s temple: two grasping breads, second quality flour, one dove, and fruit;
for (Dagan) Lord of Habitations: two grasping breads, one dove, and fruit;
for Išḫara’s temple: two grasping breads, second quality flour, and one bird.
On the 27th day, they offer the Lesser Sacrificial Homage before the abû of Dagan’s temple, with:
one gallon and one quart of (barley–)mash, a jar, one presentation vessel of barley beer, one presentation vessel of wine, one sheep, one dove, honey, oil, ghee, beef, venison, fish, apricots, soured milk, figs, all kinds of fruits, and four Hurrian birds.
For the abû of the temple of …:
one half gallon of (barley–)mash, one half gallon of second quality flour, … gallon of barley flour, and two store jugs from the House of the Gods.
They perform the song of the gods.
On the same day,
for the abû of Alal’s temple: one gallon and one quart of (barley–)mash, one [jar, one] presentation vessel of barley beer, one presentation vessel of wine, honey, oil, ghee, one dove, beef, venison, one lamb, and all kinds of fruits.
On the same day,
they give to the abû of the House of Trust, for the abû from …: honey, oil, ghee, beef, venison, fish, and all kinds of fruits.
Frame Part 3 (lines 53–55)
At the head of the month, on the day of (the moon’s) disappearance (until?) … it shines (again), they purify the city.
They offer to the Lord of Akka:
one half quart of barley flour, one jar from the House of the Gods, and … sheep from the fire-lighters.
They bring out Latarak for three days.
Second Tablet
The New Moon of Dagan (lines 1–14)
On the day of opening the doors,
they distribute among the gods: one sheep, one gallon of …
one quart of barley flour, one standard vessel of wine, one … –vessel … from the king are provided for Dagan.
One dove …
On the next day, [they perform] the Greater Sacrificial Homage for …
They distribute among the gods:
one hundred thick breads, two store jugs, one … –vessel, …, and seventy doves.
In the evening, they sacrifice one dove to Dagan.
They fill chalices from the city.
At night, they burn one water–bird, honey, and ghee.
One gallon of (barley–)mash is for the chalices.
One <quart> of (barley–)mash is for the breads.
One quart of [ (barley–)mash] is for the thick breads.
(Also,) one sheep and one standard vessel of wine.
On the same day, after the sun is lit,
One sheep is from the fire–lighters.
One gallon of (barley–)mash, one quart of (barley–)mash, three standard vessels for the chalices, ten [figs], pomegranates, and the breads and the beers are from the House of the Gods.
[break]
Celebration for Halma (lines 15–18)
…
… they offer oil … on the day of the Hiyaru, to Halma.
The Hiyaru of the Storm God (lines 19–25)
On the 18th day,
for the Hiyaru of the storm god: two sheep from the king, one for (?) the ambašši, two birds, one calf from the town … of … of the ambašši, one ox and one sheep from the town …, beer, one gallon and one quart of barley flour, one … -vessel, one standard vessel of wine, one quart of (barley)-mash, and one jar from the House of the Gods.
The breads and the beers are from the … –men.
Celebration for the Storm God and Hebat (lines 26–30)
On the 20th day, (they offer):
to the Storm God: one (ox);
to Hebat: one ox and one sheep.
[They offer] to Hebat one gallon and three quarts of (barley–)mash and one quart of barley flour.
They distribute among the gods: … from the king, one quart of barley flour, two flagons, a juglet, and …
TWO KISSU FESTIVALS (1.126)
The most often copied ritual texts from the diviner’s collection are also among the most mysterious. Emar’s kissu festivals serve a cluster of deities at the nearby village of Šatappi, though the language and procedure share the common stock of the larger center, especially of the installations for the storm god’s high priestess and for the mašʾartu. The festivals are found in several combinations on individual tablets, gathered once as a full set for Dagan, EREŠKIGAL, Ea, Išḫara and NINURTA, and a final rite for all kissu’s. No further gods are addressed in the separate fragments.
In their simplest form (EREŠKIGAL, Ea, Išḫara and NINURTA), the kissu festivals do no more than devote one day to offering and feasting for a single god (or pair). Association of a kissu rite with the mašʾartu priestess installation shows that this act of devotion may even be piggy–backed onto another event. The word kissu itself represents some local form, most easily accounted for as “throne,” elsewhere kussu and kissû at Emar. A kissu would perhaps then celebrate the dominion of each god over his or her proper sphere.
Two of the most interesting kissu festivals are presented here. The rite for Išḫara and NINURTA includes a new attestation of personnel called nābû, evidently related to the Hebrew word for “prophet.”
Dagan
Heading for all Šatappi kissu rites (line 1)
Tablet of rites for the kissu festival of Šatappi.
The Consecration Day (lines 2–9)
When the sons of Šatappi perform the kissu festival for Dagan, on the consecration day of aromatics before the tables3 they consecrate the gods of the town with bread and beer. c
They lay NINKUR in (Dagan’s) temple, (and) sacrifice one ox and one sheep to NINKUR.
The wailing woman gives forth her cry.
They set before NINKUR the ritual portion of the ox and of the sheep.
They set four tables. Among them,
they set one table for Dagan,
one table for Išḫara and NINURTA,
(and) two tables on the ground for Alal and Amaza.
The Festival Proper (lines 10–20)
On the next day, they offer meats and thick breads, and distribute one standard loaf each to the (aforesaid) gods of Šatappi.
They sacrifice two sheep to … and set before the gods their ritual portion.
The men of the consecration–gift (?) eat and drink for three days in his temple. Also, they sacrifice two sheep regularly for each of the aforesaid three
days. The high priestess of the storm god, the high priestess of Šumi, (and) the high priestess of Šatappi … their tables receive regularly one presentation vessel …
Also, daily they set before the gods four standard loaves and four dried cakes with fruit.
They regularly set one standard loaf and one dried cake with fruit (for each god).
Day 4: The Final Day (lines 21–24)
On the fourth day they raise up NINKUR. In the evening they send the two brides (who) gave gifts on the second day back to the temple of Udḫa along with bread and beer.
The singers enter and chant for Šuwala and Ugur, and perform their rites.
The musicians of the gods enter to perform.
Administration (lines 25–27)
Also, the officials who give the consecration–gift (?) receive three standard loaves each.
The king of the land, the diviner, and the chief scribe consecrate them (the gods) with contract-bread and a pot of barley beer.
They give thirty gurtu of silver to EREŠKIGAL.
Išḫḫara and NINURTA
The Consecration Day (lines 1–8)
On the consecration day of the festival, they consecrate Išḫara and NINURTA with contract-bread, a dried cake with fruit, and a pot of barley beer. c
They bathe them, and then they bake seventeen bushels of fine flour for the contract-bread, and bake fifteen bushels of bright (?) flour for the bread-
rings.
They beat with their hands all thirty–two bushels of flour together.
They give to Išḫara and NINURTA a bucket of bitter flavor, a sweet bucket,i a bucket of barley-beer, an offering of two sheep, two ewes (?) — that is (?) two sirtu–sheep.
The Festival Proper (lines 9–14)
[On the next] day, they sacrifice those two sheep to Išḫara and NINURTA at the house of the Nābû. j
They set out for the gods the ritual portion of the sheep.
They set out one dried cake with fruit and one rack of bread for Išḫara and one rack of bread for NINURTA.
[They set out] two standard loaves and one pot of barley beer for Išḫara [and NINURTA].
Administration (lines 15–21)
Also, each and every man and woman of the town receives a due portion from the loaves (baked from) the above thirty bushels of flour and from the buckets.
Also, they confine a slave–woman so as to have her bake with the sweet (bucket).22
She receives the contract-bread and the pots of barley beer.
Also, the officials who give the consecration–gift (?) eat and drink [in the temple of Dagan/Išḫara(?)].
They take away the pure bread from the tables.
[They …] Išḫara and NINURTA in Dagan’s temple.
REFERENCES
Arnaud 1986; Dietrich 1989; Durand 1988; Fleming 1990; 1992; 1993a; 1993b; Haas and Wilhelm 1974; Laroche 1976–77; McLaughlin 1991.
A PSEPHOMANCY RITUAL FROM ASSUR (1.127)
(LKA 137)
Victor Hurowitz
This text was found by the German excavations at Assur. It is an incantation recited while performing a ritual for divination by use of black (hematite) and white (alabaster) stones (psephomancy). The ritualist, while pronouncing the liturgy, tells which cultic manipulations he is performing, thus permitting the reader to follow his actions. The type of divination described has general similarities to other types of divination practiced in Mesopotamia. But it may provide a specific parallel to the enigmatic Urim and Thumim, the only type of mechanical divination legitimized by the Bible in general and by the Priestly source (P) in particular.2
Invocation (lines 1–2)
(1) Incantation: I have called upon you O Shamash […]
(2) In the midst of the [pure (?)] heavens […]
Description of Ritual (lines 3–8)
(3) I am carrying a star; […] you (?) […]
(4) I am carrying a star; I am touching my head […]
(5) x […] offering, maṣḫatu-flour … […]
(6) The pure grain, in its body, a stone […]
(7) I offer bread, pure water, fine oil.
(8) There is a star. According to the written tablet I incant.
Performance of Psephomancy and Request for Oracle (lines 9–28)
(9) Judgement is nigh, O pu[re] Shamash,
(10) The word hastens, hear the ut[terance of my mouth (?)].
(11) You will judge me, O Bel. Reveal to me secrets!
(12) Day and night [show] me secret lore.
(13) [broken]
(14) In the hem of my garment […],
(15) In the pure hem of my garment […],
(16) “Draw on the ground (the names of) seven god[s …]
(17) Sin, Shamash, Adad, Marduk, Urash–g[ub–ba],
(18) Dagan and Nab[u].”
(19) I have drawn them, and now I am lifting up a st[one (?)].
(20) If (your) judgement is nigh, and my plea is accepted,
(21) If, Bel, in your heart, there is judge[ment],
(22) If, Shamash, in your heart, there is revela[tion],
(23) May a stone of desire jump up and may the hands cat[ch (it)].
(24) If (your) judgement is not nigh, (and my) plea is not accepted,
(25) (If) Bel, in your heart, there is no judg[ment],
(26) (If) Shamash, in your heart, there is no revela[tion],
(27) May a stone of no desire jump up and may the hands cat[ch it].
(28) A second time for judgement, a third time for decis[ion].
Title (line 29)
(29) Incantation for (achieving) oracular decisions with alabaster and hematite.5
Reverse
(1) It’s ritual: On an appropriate day, you draw these [seven] gods on the ground and you intone the incantation [“I have called upon you O Shamash …] in the midst of the pure heaven” [three] times, over the white and black stones. Afterwards, you shall inquire of the gods and it (the answer) will be reliable.
_________________
Diagram [Here are the names of seven deities (ll. 17–18) written perpendicular to the direction of writing of the text.]
_________________
(5) [t]his[ xxx]
_________________
Colophon
(1) According to the long tablet of Nabu-[…]
(2) … like the old one.
(3) An excerpt tablet of Kisir-[Assur, the exorcist of the Assur temple,]
(4) son of Nabu-bessunu, the exorcist [of the Assur temple,]
(5) son of Baba-shuma-ibni, the zabar[dabbû official of Esharra.]
REFERENCES
LKA 137; Finkel 1995; Horowitz and Hurowitz 1992; Lipiński 1970; Milgrom 1991:507–511; Reiner 1960b; Van Dam 1993.
7. LOVE POEMS
LOVE LYRICS OF NABU AND TASHMETU (1.128)
Alasdair Livingstone
(1) Let anyone trust in whom he trusts; as for us we trust in Nabu, are filled with awe by Tashmetu!
(4) What belongs to us is ours; Nabu is our lord and Tashmetu the mountain of our trust! Ditto.
_________________
(6) Say to the one of the wall, to the one of the wall, to Tashmetu: “Grant safety from disaster! Settle down in the cella!”
(8) Let the pure scent of juniper incense circulate in the sanctuary! Ditto.
_________________
(9) O the shade of the cedar, the shade of the cedar, the shelter of kings! O the cypress shade of the magnates! The shade of a sprig of juniper is shelter for my darling Nabu and for my fun and games! Ditto.
_________________
(12) Tashmetu dangles a golden … in the lap of Nabu. Ditto.
(13) My lord, put an earring on me and I’ll give you pleasure in the garden!
(15) [Nabu], my lord, put an earring on me and I’ll make you rejoice in the Edubba!
_________________
(17) O my [Tashmetu], I will put bracelets of carnelian on you!
(18) […] your bracelets of carnelian!
(19) I will open […]. Ditto.
_________________
(20) […] out came the goddess.
(21) […] like a mural crown
(22) […] … […] them
(23) […] Ditto.
_________________
(At this point there is a lacuna of several lines in the text, followed by three poorly preserved lines.)
Reverse
(4) Let me give you a new chariot […]!
(5) Ditto, [whose] thighs are a gazelle in the plain! [Refrain.]
Ditto, [whose] ankle bones are an apple of the month of Siman! [Refrain.]
Ditto, whose heels are obsidian! [Refrain.]
Ditto, any part of whom is as fine as a tablet of lapis lazuli. Refrain. Looking blossoming, Tashmetu entered the nuptial chamber.
(10) She shut the door, putting in place the lapis lazuli lock.
She rinsed herself, climbed up, got onto the bed. Refrain.
Into a bowl of lapis lazuli, into a bowl of lapis lazuli, her tears flow. Refrain.
With a flock of scarlet wool he wipes away her tears. Refrain.
Thither ask, ask, question, question! Refrain.
(15) “Why, O why are you adorned, O my own Tashmetu?”
“So that I may [go] to the garden with you, my Nabu!
Let me go to the garden and [to the lord! Refrain].
Let me go alone to the most exceedingly beautiful garden! Refrain.
They did not place my throne among the counsellors. Refrain.
(20) May my eyes see the plucking of your fruit! Refrain.
May my ears hear the twittering of your birds! Refrain.
Bind and harness thither! Refrain.
Bind your days to the garden and to the lord! Refrain.
Bind your nights to the beautiful garden! Refrain.
(25) Let my own Tashmetu come with me to the garden! Refrain.
Among the counsellors, her throne is foremost! Refrain.
(At this point there is a lacuna of three lines after which the text continues on the edge of the tablet.)
(30) May her eyes behold the plucking of my fruit! [Refrain.]
May her ears listen to the twittering of my birds! [Refrain].
May her eyes behold, her ears listen! [Refrain.]
(A colophon concludes the tablet, but does not give any information apart from the name of the scribe, Budilu, and his title LÚ.A.BA.)
REFERENCES
Matsushima 1987:143–149; Livingstone 1989:35–37; Foster BM 2:902–904.
B. ROYAL FOCUS
1. EPIC
THE ADAPA STORY (1.129)
Benjamin R. Foster
In Mesopotamian tradition, Adapa was the first of the semi-divine sages (apkallu) who served as counselors (ummānu) to the ante-diluvian kings, bringing the arts of civilization to humanity. In a late formulation of this tradition, each of these kings had his own counselor, and Adapa served Alulim, the first king. He was identified as Oannes in the Greek version of the tradition as preserved by Josephus in the name of Berossos. In addition, Adapa was the protagonist of a myth known from a tablet found at El Amarna in Egypt and dating to the 14th century BCE, as well as from first millennium exemplars found in the royal libraries of Nineveh. This myth provides an aetiology of death and thus a parallel to the story of Adam in the Bible. [WWH]
Anu’s messenger reached him,
“ ‘Adapa, who fractured the wing of the south wind,
Send him to me!’ ”
(45) He brought him along the [ro]ad to heaven,
He went up to heaven.
When he went up to heaven,
And drew near Anu’s door,
Tammuz and Gizzida were standing at Anu’s door.
(50) When they saw Adapa, they cried, “(Heaven) help (us)!
“Fellow, for whom are you like this?
Adapa, why are you dressed in mourning?”
“Two gods have disappeared from the land,
So I am dressed in mourning.”
(55) “Who are the two gods who have disappeared from the land?”
“Tammuz and Gizzida.”
They looked at each other and laughed and laughed.
When Adapa made his approach to Anu the king,
Anu saw him and cried,
(60) “Come now, Adapa, why did you fracture the wing of the south wind?”
Adapa answered Anu,
“My Lord, I was fishing in the depths of the sea,
For my master’s temple.
The sea was like a mirror,
(65) Then the south wind blew upon me and capsized me.
I spent the rest of the day in the home of the fish.
In my fury, I cursed the [win]d.”
There spoke up for [him Tammuz] and Gizzida,
Saying a favorable word about him to Anu.
(70) His heart grew calm, he became quiet.
“Why did Ea disclose what pertains to heaven and earth
To an uncouth mortal,
And give him a violent temper?
Since he has so treated him,
(75) What, for our part, shall we do for him?
Bring him food of life, let him eat.” a
They brought him food of life, he did not eat.
They brought him waters of life, he did not drink.
They brought him a garment, he put it on.
(80) They brought him oil, he anointed himself.
Anu stared and burst out laughing at him,
“Come now, Adapa, why did you not eat or drink?
Won’t you live? Are not people to be im[mor]tal?”
Ea my lord told me,
‘You must not eat, you must not drink.’ ”
(85) “Let them take him and [ret]urn him to his earth.”
REFERENCES
Text: BRM 4:3 and duplicates. Translations and studies: Picchioni 1981; Dalley 1989:182–188; Foster BM 1:429–434; FDD 97–101.
ATRA-ḪASIS (1.130)
Benjamin R. Foster
The “primeval history” of humanity, which occupies the first eleven chapters of Genesis, also exercised the Mesopotamian imagination. In Akkadian, the Epic of Atra-hasis constitutes its earliest and most systematic formulation. This epic explains the creation of man as intended to relieve the (lesser) deities of their toil, and the attempted destruction of humanity as divine response to the noise of the expanding human population which threatened the very rest that their creation had sought to provide for the gods. This destruction, decreed by Enlil, took several successive forms, culminating in the Deluge but, as in other flood-stories, its purpose was frustrated by the survival of the flood-hero, here called Atra-hasis (“exceeding wise”), through the intervention of Ea, the divine friend of humanity. The problem of over-population is resolved by other means in a concluding aetiology. The composition is nearly complete in a Late Old Babylonian recension in three tablets (chapters), and is known as well in various fragmentary later recensions. [WWH]
(1) When gods were man,
They did forced labor, they bore drudgery.
Great indeed was the drudgery of the gods,
The forced labor was heavy, the misery too much:
(5) The seven (?) great Anunna–gods were burdening
The Igigi–gods with forced labor.
…
[The gods] were digging watercourses,
[Canals they opened, the] life of the land.
[The Igigi–gods] were digging watercourses,
[Canals they opened, the] life of the land.
(25) [The Igigi–gods dug the Ti]gris river,
[And the Euphrates there]after.
[Springs they opened up from] the depths,
[Wells …] they established.
…
[They heaped up] all the mountains.
[ ]
[ years] of drudgery,
(35) [ ] the vast marsh.
They [cou]nted years of drudgery,
[ and] forty years, too much!
[ ] forced labor they bore night and day.
[They were com]plaining, denouncing,
(40) [Mut]tering down in the ditch:
“Let us face up to our [foreman] the prefect,
He must take off (this) our [he]avy burden upon us!
[ ], counsellor of the gods, the warrior,
Come, let us remove (him) from his dwelling;
(45) Enlil, counsellor of the gods, the warrior,
Come, let us remove (him) from his dwelling!”
…
“Now then, call for battle!
Battle let us join, warfare!”
The gods heard his words:
They set fire to their tools,
(65) They put fire to their spaces,
And flame to their workbaskets.
Off they went, one and all,
To the gate of the warrior Enlil’s abode.
[ ]
(70) It was night, half–way through the watch,
The house was surrounded, but the god did not know.
It was night, half–way through the watch,
Ekur was surrounded, but Enlil did not know!
(The gods awake, convene and send a messenger to the rebels.)
[Nusku opened] his gate,
[Took his weapons] and w[ent] … Enlil.
[In the assembly of a]ll the gods,
(135) [He knelt, s]tood up, expounded the c[omm]and,
“Anu, your father,
[Your counsellor, the] warrior Enlil,
[Your prefect], Ninurta,
And [your bailiff] Ennugi [have sent me (to say)]:
(140) ‘Who is [instigator of] battle?
Who is [instigator of] hostilities?
Who [declared] war,
[ (That) battle has run up to the gate of Enlil]?
In [ ]
(145) He trans[gressed the command of] Enlil.’
“Every [one of us gods has declared] war;
…
We have set [ ] in the e[xcavation].
[Excessive] drudgery [has killed us],
(150) [Our] forced labor was heavy, [the misery too much]!
Now, every [one of us gods]
Has resolved on [a reckoning (?)] with Enlil.”
…
(When the gods learn the reason, they decide to create man to relieve them from labor.)
(a) Ea made ready to speak,
And said to the gods [his brothers]:
“What calumny do we lay to their charge?
Their forced labor was heavy, [their misery too much]!
(e) Every day [ ]
The outcry [was loud, we could hear the clamor].
There is [ ]
[Belet–ili, the midwife], is present.
Let her create, then, a hum[an, a man],
(j) Let him bear the yoke [ ],
Let him bear the yoke [ ]!
[Let man assume the drud]gery of god …”
“[Belet–ili, the midwife], is present,
(190) Let the midwife create a human being,
Let man assume the drudgery of god.”
They summoned and asked the goddess,
The midwife of the gods, wise Mami:
“Will you be the birth goddess, creatress of mankind?
(195) Create a human being that he bear the yoke,
Let him bear the yoke, the task of Enlil,
Let man assume the drudgery of god.”
Nintu made ready to speak,
And said to the great gods:
(200) “It is not for me to do it,
The task is Enki’s.
He it is that cleanses all,
Let him provide me the clay so I can do the making.”
Enki made ready to speak,
(205) And said to the great gods:
“On the first, seventh, and fifteenth days of the month, b
Let me establish a purification, a bath.
Let one god be slaughtered,
Then let the gods be cleansed by immersion.
(210) Let Nintu mix clay with his flesh and blood.
Let that same god and man be thoroughly mixed in the clay.
Let us hear the drum for the rest of time,
(215) From the flesh of the god let a spirit remain,
Let it make the living know its sign,
Lest he be allowed to be forgotten, let the spirit remain.”
The great Anunna–gods, who administer destinies,
(220) Answered “yes!” in the assembly.
On the first, seventh, and fifteenth days of the month,
He established a purification, a bath.
They slaughtered Aw–ilu, who had the inspiration, in their assembly.
(225) Nintu mixed clay with his flesh and blood.
<That same god and man were thoroughly mixed in the clay.>
For the rest [of time they would hear the drum],
From the flesh of the god [the] spi[rit remained].
It would make the living know its sign,
(230) Lest he be allowed to be forgotten, [the] spirit remained.
After she had mixed that clay,
She summoned the Anunna, the great gods.
The Igigi, the great gods, spat upon the clay.
(235) Mami made ready to speak,
And said to the great gods:
“You ordered me the task and I have completed (it)!
You have slaughtered the god, along with his inspiration.
(240) I have done away with your heavy forced labor,
I have imposed your drudgery on man.
You have bestowed (?) clamor upon mankind.
I have released the yoke, I have [made] restoration.”
They heard this speech of hers,
(245) They ran, free of care, and kissed her feet, (saying):
“Formerly [we used to call] you Mami,
Now let your n[am]e be “Mistress–of–All–the Gods (Belet-kala–ili)”
[The population increases until their noise disturbs the gods. They try to reduce humanity with disease and starvation, but Enki saves the human race through advising a wise man, Atrahasis, what to do. The gods resolve on a flood to wipe out all humans. Enki warns Atrahasis in a dream.]
(35) E[nlil] committed an evil deed against the peoples.
Atrahasis made ready to speak,
And said to his lord:
“Make me know the meaning [of the dream],
[ ] let me know, that I may look out for its consequence.”
(15) [Enki] made ready to speak,
And said to his servant:
“You might say, ‘Am I to be looking out while in the bedroom?’
Do you pay attention to message that I speak for you:
(20) ‘Wall, listen to me!
Reed wall, pay attention to all my words!
Flee the house, build a boat,
Forsake possessions, and save life.
(25) The boat which you build,
[ ] be equal [ ]
[gap]
Roof her over like the depth,
(30) So that the sun shall not see inside her,
Let her be roofed over fore and aft.
The gear should be very strong,
The pitch should be firm, and so give (the boat) strength.
I will shower down upon you later
(35) A windfall of birds, a spate (?) of fishes.’
He opened the water clock and filled it,
He told it of the coming of the seven–day deluge.
Atrahasis received the command,
He assembled the elders at his gate.
(40) Atrahasis made ready to speak,
And said to the elders:
“My god [does not agree] with your god,
Enki and [Enlil] are constantly angry with each other.
They have expelled me from [the land (?)].
(45) Since I have always reverenced [Enki],
[He told me] this.
I can[not] live in [ ]
Nor can I [set my feet on] the earth of Enlil.
[I will dwell (?)] with <my> god in (?) the depths.”
(50) “[This] he told me [ ] …”
[gap of four or five lines]
(ii)
[gap]
(ii 10) The elders [ ]
The carpenter [carried his axe],
The reed–worker [carried his stone].
[The rich man? carried] the pitch,
The poor man [brought the materials needed].
[gap]
Atrahasis [ ]
[gap]
Bringing [ ]
(ii 30) Whatever he [had ]
Whatever he had [ ]
Pure (animals) he sl[aughtered, cattle] …
Fat (animals) [he killed, sheep (?)] …
He chose and brought on] board.
(ii 35) The [birds] flying in the heavens,
The cattle (?) [and of the cat]tle god,
The [creatures (?) ] of the steppe,
[ ] he brought on board
[ ] …
(ii 40) [ ] he invited his people
[ ] to a feast.
[ ] his family he brought on board.
While one was eating and another was drinking,
(ii 45) He went in and out; he could not sit, could not kneel,
For his heart was broken, he was retching gall.
The outlook of the weather changed,
Adad began to roar in the clouds.
(ii 50) The god they heard, his clamor.
He brought pitch to seal his door.
By the time he had bolted his door,
Adad was roaring in the clouds.
The winds were furious as he set forth,
(ii 55) He cut the mooring rope and released the boat.
[four lines lost]
(iii 5) [ ] the storm
[ ] were yoked
[Anzu rent] the sky with his talons,
[He ] the land
(iii 10) And broke its clamor [like a pot].
[ ] the flood [came forth],
Its power came upon the peoples [like a battle].
One person did [not] see another,
They could [not] recognize each other in the catastrophe.
(iii 15) [The deluge] bellowed like a bull,
The wind [resound]ed like a screaming eagle.
The darkness [was dense], the sun was gone,
[ ] … like flies
(iii 20) [ the clamor (?)] of the deluge
[The gods regret their hasty action when they find themselves hungry and thirsty. When they find that Atrahasis has survived, they agree to a proposal that certain classes of humanity not reproduce.]
(iii 45) [Enki] made ready to speak,
And [said to] Nintu the birth goddess:
“[You], birth goddess, creatress of destinies,
[Establish death] for all peoples!
…
(1) “Now then, let there be a third (woman) among the people,
Among the people are the woman who has borne and the woman who has not borne.
Let there be (also) among the people the (she) — demon,
(5) Let her snatch the baby from the lap of her who bore it,
Establish high priestesses and priestesses,
Let them be taboo, and so cut down childbirth.
REFERENCES
Text: Lambert and Millard 1969. Translations and studies: Dalley 1989:1–38; Foster BM 1:160–185; FDD 52–77.
ETANA (1.131)
Stephanie Dalley
The story centers on a king of Kish who is attested in the Sumerian king list as a quasi–historical character. Presumably the legend had its origin in Kish, although the patron deities of Kish, Zababa and Ishtar, play no part, for the sun–god Shamash alone is involved. The length and ending of the story are still disputed; if it was a three–tablet composition in its “Standard” form, it should consist of about 450 lines in all.
Tablets of the Old Babylonian version come from Susa in Elam and from Tell Harmal; a Middle Assyrian version comes from Assur, and the “Standard” version from Nineveh, to which may be added unprovenanced tablets in museum collections. But the story is certainly much older, for Lu–Nanna, the demi–sage of Shulgi, king of Ur (21st century), is credited as the author, and the ascent of Etana on an eagle’s back is shown on cylinder seals of the Akkadian period (ca. 23rd century). The late version omits some episodes which are quite crucial to the understanding of the story although in other ways the versions seem close, with mainly rephrasing of individual lines or passages.
The bare motif, of a man’s ascent to heaven on an eagle’s back, is also found in the Greek myth of Ganymede; it was incorporated into the Alexander Romance, and is also found in Iranian stories and Islamic legends. The motif of a tree inhabited by a snake and a bird also occurs in the Sumerian text Gilgamesh and the Halub Tree, (see Dalley 1989:134, n. 147).
Etana is the only Mesopotamian tale to have been identified unequivocally on ancient cylinder seals (see Baudot 1982).
The different versions were almost certainly divided into tablets at different points in the text. SBV is followed here.
(SBV) (Tablet I)
[The great gods, the Igigi] designed a city,
[The Igigi] laid its foundation.
[The Anunnaki] designed the city of Kish,
[The Anunnaki] laid its foundation,
The Igigi made its brickwork firm
[ ].
“Let [ ] be their shepherd [ ]
Let Etana be their builder (?) [ ] the staff of [ ].”
The great Anunnaki who decree destinies
Sat and conferred their counsel on the land.
(10) They were creating the four quarters (of the world) and establishing the form (of it).
The Igigi [ ] decreed names (?) for them all.
They had not established a king over all the teeming people.
At that time the headband and crown had not been put together,
And the lapis lazuli sceptre had not been brandished (?),
At the same time (?) the throne-dais had not been made.
The Sebitti barred the gates against armies (?),
[The ] barred them against (other) settled peoples.
The Igigi would patrol the city [ ].
(20) Ishtar [was looking for] a shepherd
And searching high and low for a king.
Inninna [was looking for] a shepherd
And searching high and low for a king.
Ellil was looking for a throne-dais for Etana.
“The young man for whom Ishtar [is looking so dilige]ntly
And searches endlessly [ ].
A king is hereby affirmed for the land, and in Kish [it is established (?)]”
He brought kingship [ ]
[ ]
The gods of the lands [ ]
(about 120 lines missing)
(Tablet II)
He named him [ ]-man [ ]
He built a fort (?) [ ]
In the shade of that throne-dais a poplar sprouted [ ]
On its crown an eagle crouched, [and a serpent lay at its base].
Every day they would keep watch [for their prey (?)].
The eagle made its voice heard and said to the serpent,
“Come, let us be friends,
Let us be comrades, you and I.”
(10) The serpent made its voice heard and spoke to the eagle,
“[You are not fit for] friendship [in the sight of Shamash!]
You are wicked and you have grieved his heart.
You have done unforgivable deeds, an abomination to the gods.
(But) come, let us stand up and [make a pledge (?)]”
In the presence of Shamash the warrior they swore an oath,
“Whoever oversteps the limit set by Shamash,
Shamash shall deliver into the hands of the Smiter for harm.
Whoever oversteps the limit set by Shamash,
(20) May the mountain keep its pass far away from him,
May the prowling weapon make straight for him,
May the snares (on which) the oath to Shamash (is sworn) overturn him and ensnare him!”
When they had sworn the oath on [the net of Shamash (?)],
They stood up (?) and went up the mountain.
Each day they kept watch [for their prey (?).]
The eagle would catch a wild bull or wild ass,
And the serpent would eat, (then) turn away so that its young could eat.
(30) The serpent would catch mountain goats or gazelles,
And the eagle would eat, (then) turn away so that its young could eat.
The eagle would catch wild boar and wild sheep.
And the serpent would eat, (then) turn away so that its young could eat.
The serpent would catch cattle from the plains and wild beasts from the countryside,
And the eagle would eat, (then) turn away so that its young could eat.
The young of the serpent [had an abundance] of food.
The eagle’s young grew large and flourished.
When the eagle’s young had grown large and flourished,
The eagle plotted evil in its heart,
And in its heart it plotted evil,
And made up its mind to eat its friend’s young ones.
(40) The eagle made its voice heard and spoke to its young,
“I am going to eat the serpent’s young ones,
The serpent [is sure to be an]gry
So I shall go up and abide in the sky.
I shall come down from the tree top only to eat the fruit!”
A small fledgling, especially wise, addressed its words to the eagle, its father,
“Father, don’t eat! The net of Shamash will ensnare you.
The snares (on which) the oath of Shamash (is sworn) will overturn you and ensnare you.
(Remember:) Whoever oversteps the limit set by Shamash,
Shamash shall deliver into the hands of the Smiter for harm.”
(50) It would not listen to them, and would not listen to the word of its sons.
It went down and ate the serpent’s young.
In the evening at the close of day,
The serpent came and was carrying its load,
Laid the meat down at the entrance to its nest,
Stared, for its nest was not there.
Morning came (?), but [the eagle] did not [appear]
For with its talons it had [clawed at] the ground,
And its dust cloud [covered] the heavens on high.
The serpent lay down and wept,
(60) Its tears flowed before Shamash.
“I trusted in you, Shamash the warrior.
And I was helpful (?) to the eagle who lives on the branches.
Now the serpent’s nest [is grief-stricken].
My own nest is not there, while its nest is safe.
My young ones are scattered and its young ones are safe.
It came down and ate my young ones!
You know the wrong which it has done me, Shamash!
Truly, O Shamash, your net is as wide as earth,
Your snare is as broad as the sky!
(70) The eagle should not escape from your net,
As criminal as Anzu, who wronged his comrade.”
[When he heard] the serpent’s plea,
Shamash made his voice heard and spoke to the serpent,
“Go along the path, cross the mountain
Where a wild bull [ ] has been bound for you.
Open up its innards, slit open its stomach,
Make a place to sit inside its stomach.
All kinds of birds will come down from the sky and eat the flesh.
The eagle too [will come down] with them.
(80) [Since] it will not be aware of danger to itself,
It will search out the tenderest morsels, will comb the area (?),
Penetrate to the lining of the innards.
When it enters the innards, you must seize it by the wing,
Cut its wings, feather and pinion,
Pluck it and throw it into a bottomless pit,
Let it die there of hunger and thirst!”
At the command of the warrior Shamash,
The serpent went, it crossed the mountain.
The serpent came upon the wild bull,
(90) And opened up its innards and slit open its stomach,
And made a place to sit inside its stomach.
All kinds of birds came down from the sky and began to eat the flesh.
But the eagle was aware of the danger to itself
And would not eat the flesh with the other birds.
The eagle made its voice heard and spoke to its son,
“Come, let us go down and let us eat the flesh of this wild bull!”
But the young fledgling was exceptionally wise, and said to the eagle its father,
“Don’t go down, father; perhaps the serpent is lying in wait inside this wild bull!”
The eagle reasoned thus to itself:
(100) “If the birds felt any fear,
How would they be eating the flesh so peacefully?”
It did not pay heed to them, did not listen to the words of its sons,
Came down and stood upon the wild bull.
The eagle inspected the flesh,
But kept scanning ahead of it and behind it.
It inspected the flesh again,
But kept scanning ahead of it and behind it.
It kept going further in (?) until it penetrated to the lining of the innards.
As it went right in, the serpent seized it by the wing.
(110) “You robbed (?) my nest, you robbed my nest!”
The eagle made its voice heard and began to speak to the serpent,
“Spare me, and I shall give you, as one betrothed, a nudunnû-payment.”
The serpent made its voice heard and spoke to the eagle,
“If I were to free you, how would I answer Shamash the Most High?
The punishment due to you would revert to me,
The punishment that I now inflict on you!”
It cut its wings, pinion and feather,
Plucked it and threw it into a pit,
To die of hunger and thirst.
(120) [The eagle ]
Every day it prayed repeatedly to Shamash,
“Am I to die in the pit?
Who realizes that it is your punishment I bear?
Save my life for me, the eagle,
So that I may broadcast your fame for eternity!”
Shamash made his voice heard and spoke to the eagle,
“You are wicked, and you have grieved my heart.
You did an unforgivable deed, an abomination to the gods.
You were under oath, and I shall not go near you!
(130) But a man, whom I am sending to you, is coming — let him help you.”
Every day, Etana prayed repeatedly to Shamash,
“O Shamash, you have enjoyed the best cuts of my sheep,
Earth has drunk the blood of my lambs,
I have honored the gods and respected the spirits of the dead.
The dream-interpreters have made full use of my incense.
The gods have made full use of my lambs at the slaughter.
O Lord, let the word go forth from your mouth
And give me the plant of birth,
Show me the plant of birth,
(140) Remove my shame and provide me with a son!”
Shamash made his voice heard and spoke to Etana,
“Go along the road, cross the mountain,
Find a pit and look carefully at what is inside it.
An eagle is abandoned down there.
It will show you the plant of birth.”
At the command of Shamash the warrior,
Etana went, crossed the mountain,
Found the pit and looked at what was inside it.
An eagle was abandoned down there.
(150) The eagle raised itself up at once.
(Tablet III)
(LV) The eagle made its voice heard and spoke to Shamash,
“O Lord, [ ]
The offspring (?) of a bird [ ]
I am [ ]
Whatever he says [ ]
Whatever I say, [ ].”
At the command of Shamash, [ ]
The offspring (?) of the bird [ ].
The eagle made its voice heard and spoke to Etana,
“Why have you come to me? Tell me!”
Etana made his voice heard and spoke to the eagle,
“O my friend, give me the plant of birth,
Show me the plant of birth!
Remove my shame and provide me with a son!
Leave […]
When you get out (?) […]
Then the eagle said [to Etana (?)],
“All alone I shall [search the mountains (?)].
Let me bring [the plant of birth (?)] to you.”
(MAV) When Etana heard this,
He covered the front of the pit with juniper,
Made for it and threw down […]
And kept […]
Thus he kept (?) the eagle alive in the pit.
He began to teach it to fly again.
For one [month], then a second [month]
He kept (?) the eagle alive in the pit
And began to teach it to fly again.
For a third [month], then a fourth mo[nth]
He kept (?) the eagle alive in the pit
And began to teach it to fly again.
(OBV) [Etana] helped it for seven months.
In the eighth month he helped it out of its pit.
The eagle, now well fed, was as strong as a fierce lion.
The eagle made its voice heard and spoke to Etana,
“My friend, we really are friends, you and I!
Tell me what you wish from me, that I may give it to you.”
Etana made his voice heard and spoke to the eagle,
“Change my destiny (?) and disclose what is concealed!”
(Gap of about 6 lines?)
(SBV) Etana (?) went and [helped the eagle out (?)].
The eagle hunted around [in the mountains (?)]
But [the plant of birth] was not [to be found there].
“Come, my friend, let me carry you up [to the sky],
[Let us meet] with Ishtar, the mistress [of birth].
Beside Ishtar the mistress [of birth let us ].
Put your arms over my sides,
Put your hands over the quills of my wings.”
He put his arms over its sides,
Put his hands over the quills of its wings.
[The eagle] took him upwards for a mile.
“My friend, look at the country! How does it seem?”
“The affairs of the country buzz (?) [like flies (?)]
And the wide sea is no bigger than a sheepfold!”
[The eagle took him] up a second mile,
“My friend, look at the country! How does it seem?”
“The country has turned into a garden […],
And the wide sea is no bigger than a bucket!”
It took him up a third mile.
“My friend, look at the country! How does it seem?”
“I am looking for the country, but I can’t see it!
And my eyes cannot even pick out the wide sea!
My friend, I cannot go any further towards heaven.
Retrace the way, and let me go back to my city!”
The eagle shrugged him off for one mile,
Then dropped down and retrieved him on its wings.
The eagle shrugged him off for a second mile,
Then dropped down and retrieved him on its wings.
The eagle shrugged him off for a third mile,
Then dropped down and retrieved him on its wings.
A metre from the ground, the eagle shrugged him off,
Then dropped down and retrieved him on its wings.
(Gap of uncertain length)
(They go back to Kish. Etana has a series of three (?) dreams which encourage him to make a second attempt to reach heaven.)
Etana said to the eagle,
“[My friend, I saw a first (?) dream.]
The city of Kish was sobbing […]
Within it [the people were in mourning (?)]
I sang [a song of lamentation (?)].
‘O Kish, giver of life!
Etana [cannot give you an heir (?)]
O Kish, giver of life,
[…]
Etana [cannot give you an heir (?)] …’ ”
(Gap of uncertain length)
His wife said to Etana,
“[The god] showed me a dream.
Like Etana my husband [I have had a dream (?)],
Like you [the god has shown me a dream (?)].
Etana was king [of Kish for x years (?)]
And his ghost [ ]
(Gap of uncertain length)
(Tablet IV)
Etana opened his mouth and spoke to the eagle,
“My friend, that god showed me [another dream (?)].
We were going through the entrance of the gate of Anu, Ellil, and Ea.
We bowed down together, you and I.
We were going through the entrance of the gate of Sin, Shamash, Adad, and Ishtar,
We bowed down together, you and I.
I saw a house with a window that was not sealed.
I pushed it open and went inside.
Sitting in there was a girl
(10) Adorned with a crown, fair of face.
A throne was set in place, and […]
Beneath the throne crouched snarling lions.
I came up and the lions sprang at me.
I woke up terrified.”
The eagle said to Etana,
“My friend, [the significance of the dreams] is quite clear!
Come, let me carry you up to the heaven of Anu.
Put your chest over my breast,
Put your hands over the quills of my wings.
(20) Put your arms over my sides.”
He put his chest over its breast,
Put his hands over its feathers,
Put his arms over its sides.
The eagle tied its load on securely,
Took him up a mile
And spoke to him, to Etana,
“See, my friend, how the country seems!
Inspect the sea, look carefully for its features!
The country is only the edge (?) of (?) a mountain!
(30) And whatever has become of the sea?”
The eagle took him up a second mile
And spoke to Etana,
“See, my friend, how the country seems!
Whatever [has become of (?)] the country?”
The eagle took him up a third mile
And spoke to Etana,
“See, my friend, how the country seems!
The sea has turned into a gardener’s ditch!”
When they came up to the heaven of Anu,
They went through the gate of Anu, Ellil, and Ea.
(40) The eagle and Etana bowed down together.
They went through the gate of Sin, Shamash, Adad, and Ishtar.
The eagle and Etana bowed down together.
[…]
He pushed it open [and went inside].
(The rest of the text is missing)
(According to the Sumerian King List, Etana was succeeded by his son Balih.)
REFERENCES
Text: Kinnier Wilson 1985. Translations: Dalley 1989:189–202; Foster BM 1:437–460; FDD 132–163.
GILGAMESH (1.132)
Benjamin R. Foster
The Gilgamesh Epic is deservedly the most famous literary relic of ancient Mesopotamia. Its evolution can be traced from episodic Sumerian beginnings (“The Tale of Ziusudra”) through successive Akkadian translations and adaptations to a final canonical version in twelve tablets (chapters) (see Tigay 1982), and serves as an empirical model for testing hypotheses about the evolution of the Biblical canon (Tigay 1985). Its recovery began early and helped spark interest in the further exploration of Assyria and, later, of Babylonia; the recovery is still not complete, and new discoveries continue to complete our knowledge of the text in its successive recensions. The overall theme of the integrated epic is the (doomed) quest for eternal life and the “consolation-prize” of enduring fame which, in the case of Gilgamesh, has actually been achieved. Of the many translations into English, those of Speiser in ANET (1956), Gallery Kovacs (1989) and Dalley (1989) can be singled out for accuracy, that of Gardner and Maier (1984) for its poetry. Note also two important new translations into French by Bottéro (1992) and Tournay and Shaffer (1994) respectively.
Of the many Biblical parallels featured in the Epic, none are more numerous or more familiar than those of Tablet XI with its version of the Mesopotamian story of the Deluge. It is the most elaborate version of a story that had been told in briefer compass already in other contexts, both Sumerian and Akkadian. Here it is put into the mouth of the Flood-hero himself, known in different versions by different names but here as Utnapishtim, (Uta-napishtam, “I have/ he has found life”). At one stage of its evolution, Tablet XI was the last tablet of the epic, and concluded with the return of Gilgamesh to Uruk (omitted here). Subsequently a twelfth tablet was added by straight translation from a Sumerian prototype; it included a vision of the netherworld over which Gilgamesh presided as a deity. [WWH]
Gilgamesh said to him, to Utnapishtim the far–off,
“As I look upon you, Utnapishtim,
Your limbs are not strange, you are just as I am,
You are not strange at all, you are just as I am!
I imagined you ready for battle,
Yet my arm [ ] and you lie on your back.
[Tell me], how did you join the ranks of the gods when you sought life?”
Utnapishtim said to him, to Gilgamesh,
“Let me reveal to you, O Gilgamesh, a hidden matter,
And a secret of the gods let me tell you.
Shuruppak, a city you know of,
[And which on] Euphrates [bank] is situate,
That city was ancient and the gods were within it.
The great gods resolved to send the deluge.
They [sw]ore their father Anu,
Their counsellor the warrior Enlil,
Their throne–bearer Ninurta,
Their canal–officer Ennugi,
The leader Ea was under oath with them.
He repeated their plans to the reed hut,
‘Reed hut, reed hut, wall, wall!
Listen reed hut, be mindful, wall!
Man of Shuruppak, son of Ubartutu,
Destroy this house, build a ship,
Forsake possessions, seek life,
Build an ark and save life.
Take aboard ship seed of all living things.
The ship which you shall build,
Let her dimensions be measured off.
Let her width and length be equal,
Roof her over like a hidden depth.’
I understood full well, I said to Ea my lord,
‘[Your command], my lord, which you spoke just so,
I shall faithfully execute.
What shall I answer to the city, the multitude, and the elders?’
Ea made ready to speak,
Saying to me, his servant,
“Young man, do you speak to them thus,
‘It seems that Enlil dislikes me,
I cannot dwell in your city,
I may not set my foot on the dry land of Enlil,
I shall go down to the depths and dwell with my lord Ea.
[Upon] you shall he shower down in abundance,
[ ] of birds, a surprise of fishes,
[ ], harvest riches,
[In the morning] spate of cakes,
[In the evening] rain of grain.
[With the fir]st glimmer of dawn in the land,
The land was assembling [around me].
The carpenter carried his ax[e ],
The [reedcutter] carried his kn[ife],
[ ] the workmen [ ],
The houses [made rope],
The wealthy carried the pitch,
The poor brought … what was needful.
On the fifth day I laid her framework,
One full acre was her floorspace,
Ten dozen cubits each was the height of her walls,
Ten dozen cubits each were the edges around her.
I laid out her contours, I sketched out her lines,
I decked her in six,
I divided her in seven,
Her interior I divided nine ways.
I drove the waterplugs into her,
I saw to the spars and laid in what was needful.
Thrice 3600 measures of pitch I poured in the oven,
Thrice 3600 measures of tar did [I pour out] inside her.
Thrice 3600 measures of oil for the workers who carried the baskets,
Aside from the 300 measures of oil that the caulking consumed,
And twice 3600 measures of oil that the boatmen stored away.
For the [builders] bullocks were slaughtered,
And I killed sheep every day,
Fine beer, [grape] wine, oil and date wine,
[Did I give] the workers [to drink] like drinking water,
They made a feast as on New Year’s Day.
[I opened (?)] ointment, dispensed (it) with my own hand.
On the seventh day (?) the ship was completed, a
[ ] were very difficult.
They brought on gang planks (?), fore and aft,
[They ca]me [up] her (side?) two thirds (of her height?).
[Whatever I had] I loaded upon her:
What silver I had I loaded upon her,
What gold I had I loaded upon her,
What living creatures I had I loaded upon her.
I made go aboard all my family and kin,
Beasts of the steppe, wild animals of the steppe, all skilled craftsmen I made go on board.
Shamash set for me an appointed time:
‘In the morning when it spates in cakes,
In the evening when it rains in grain,
Go into your ship, batten the door!’
That appointed time arrived,
In the morning spates in cakes,
In the evening rain in grain,
I gazed upon the appearance of the storm, The storm was frightful to behold!
I went into the ship and battened my door,
To the caulker of the ship, to Puzur–Amurri, the boatman,
I gave (away my) palace, with all its possessions.
At the first glimmer of dawn,
A black cloud rose up from the horizon,
Inside [the cloud] Adad was thundering.
While Shullat and Hanish went on before,
Moving as a retinue over hill and plain,
Erragal tore out the dike posts,
Ninurta came and brought with him the dikes.
The Anunna–gods held torches aloft,
Setting the land ablaze with their glow.
Adad’s awesome power passed over the heavens,
Whatever was light he turned into darkness.
[He smote …] the land, it shattered like a pot!
For one day the storm wind [ ],
Swiftly it blew, [the flood cam]e forth,
It was passing over the people like a battle.
No one could see his neighbor,
Nor could the people see each other in the downpour.
The gods became frightened of the deluge,
They shrank back and went up to Anu’s highest heaven.
The gods cowered like dogs, crouching outside,
Ishtar screamed like a woman in childbirth,
And sweet–voiced Belet–[ili] moaned aloud:
‘Would that day had turned to nought,
When I spoke up for evil in the assembly of the gods!’
‘How could I have spoken up for evil in the assembly of the gods,
‘And spoken up for an assault to the death against my people?
It was I myself who bore my people!
(Now) like fish spawn they choke up the sea!’
The Anunna–gods were weeping with her,
The gods sat where they were (?), weeping.
Their lips were parched (?), taking on a crust.
Six days and [seven] nights
The wind continued, the deluge and windstorm levelled the land.
When the seventh day arrived, the windstorm and deluge left off their assault,
Which they had launched, like a fight to the death.
The sea grew calm, the tempest grew still, the deluge ceased.
I looked at the weather, stillness reigned,
And all of mankind had turned into clay.
The landscape was flat as a terrace.
I opened the hatch, daylight fell upon my face.
Crumpling over, I sat down and wept,
Tears running down my face.
I beheld the edges of the world, bordering the sea,
At twelve times sixty leagues a mountain rose up.
The boat rested on Mount Nimush,
Mount Nimush held the boat fast, not allowing it to move. c
One day, a second day Mount Nimush held the boat fast, not allowing it to move.
A third day, a fourth day Mount Nimush held the boat fast, not allowing it to move.
A fifth day, a sixth day Mount Nimush held the boat fast, not allowing it to move.
When the seventh day arrived,
I released a dove to go free,
The dove went and returned,
No landing place came to view, it turned back.
I released a swallow to go free,
The swallow went and returned,
No landing place came to view, it turned back.
I sent a raven to go free,
The raven went forth, saw the ebbing of the waters,
It ate, circled, left droppings, did not turn back.
I released (all) to the four cardinal points,
I set up an offering stand on the top of the mountain.
Seven and seven cult vessels I set out,
I heaped reeds, cedar, and myrtle in their bowls.
The gods smelled the savor,
The gods smelled the sweet savor,
The gods crowded around the sacrificer like flies.
As soon as Belet–ili arrived,
She held up the great fly–ornaments that Anu had made her in his infatuation,
‘O these gods here, as surely as I shall not forget this lapis on my neck,
I shall be mindful of these days, and not forget, forever!
Let the gods come to the offering,
But Enlil must not come to the offering,
For he, unreasoning, brought on the deluge,
And reckoned my people for destruction!’
Suddenly, as Enlil arrived,
He saw the boat, Enlil became angry,
He was filled with fury at the gods.
‘Who came out alive? No man was to survive destruction!’
Ninurta made ready to speak, and said to the warrior Enlil,
‘Who but Ea could devise such a thing?
For Ea alone knows every craft.’
Ea made ready to speak, and said to the warrior Enlil,
‘You, O warrior, are the sage of the gods,
How could you, unreasoning, have brought on the deluge?
Impose punishment on the sinner for his sin, On the transgressor for his transgression,
(But) be lenient, lest he be cut off, bear with him, lest he fall.
Instead of your bringing on the flood, would a lion had risen up to diminish mankind!
Instead of your bringing on the flood, would a wolf had risen up to diminish mankind!
Instead of your bringing on the flood, would a famine had risen up for the land to undergo,
Instead of your bringing on the flood, would pestilence had risen up for mankind to undergo!
I was not the one who disclosed the secret of the great gods,
I made Atra–hasis see a dream, he heard a secret of the gods.
Now then, make some plan for him.’
Then Enlil came up into the ship,
Leading me by the hand, he brought me up too.
He took my wife up and made her kneel beside me,
He touched our brows, stood between us and blessed us,
“Hitherto Utnapishtim has been a human being,
Now Utnapishtim and his wife shall become like us gods,
Utnapishtim shall dwell afar–off at the source of the rivers.”
Thus it was they took me afar–off and made me dwell at the source of the rivers.
REFERENCES
Text: Borger BAL2 1:105–111, 2:344–350. Translations and studies: see introductory note.
THE BIRTH LEGEND OF SARGON OF AKKAD (1.133)
Benjamin R. Foster
Sargon of Akkad erected the first world empire on Asiatic soil around 2300 BCE, and his exploits almost immediately became the stuff of legend. His (throne) name, in Akkadian šarru-kēn(u), means “the king is legitimate,” “the legitimate king,” and served to make up for his usurpation of the claims of the ancient dynasty of Kish. The name was assumed again by an early king of Assyria (Sargon I, 20th century BCE) and by the more famous Sargon II (8th century BCE). “Sargon” is the biblical rendering of the last-named king (Isa 20:1). It was presumably also this king who commissioned a number of texts intended to glorify his old namesake, including the following legend of the latter’s birth and rise to power, which shares features with the Moses narrative and with later treatments of the theme of the hero exposed at birth who nevertheless grows up to claim his birthright including, in this case, kingship. [WWH]
I am Sargon the great king, king of Agade. a
My mother was a high priestess, I did not know my father.
My father’s brothers dwell in the uplands.
My city is Azupiranu, which lies on Euphrates bank.
My mother, the high priestess, conceived me, she bore me in secret.
She placed me in a reed basket, she sealed my hatch with pitch.
She left me to the river, whence I could not come up.
The river carried me off, it brought me to Aqqi, drawer of water.
Aqqi, drawer of water, brought me up as he dipped his bucket.
Aqqi, drawer of water, raised me as his adopted son.
Aqqi, drawer of water, set (me) to his orchard work.
During my orchard work, Ishtar loved me,
Fifty–five years I ruled as king.
I became lord over and ruled the black–headed folk,
I … [ ] hard mountains with picks of copper,
I was wont to ascend high mountains,
I was wont to cross over low mountains.
The [la]nd of the sea I sieged three times,
I conquered Dilmun.
I went up to great Der, I [ ],
I destroyed [Ka]zallu and [ ].
Whatsoever king who shall arise after me,
[Let him rule as king fifty–five years],
Let him become lo[rd over and rule] the black-headed folk.
Let him [ ] hard mountains with picks [of copper].
Let him be wont to ascend high mountains,
[Let him be wont to cross over low mountains].
Let him siege the [la]nd of the sea three times,
[Let him conquer Dilmun].
Let him go up [to] great Der and [ ].
… from my city Agade
[breaks off]
REFERENCES
Text: CT 13:42f. and duplicates. Translations and studies: ANET 119; Lewis 1980; Hallo 1991b:130f.; Foster BM 2:803–804; FDD 165–166.
2. HISTORIOGRAPHY
BABYLONIAN KING LISTS (1.134)
Alan Millard
Lists of rulers with lengths of reign were needed by scribes for calculating how long ago legal deeds had been concluded. They also enabled kings to learn when their predecessors had built temples or palaces which they were rebuilding. For a royal family they could supply a genealogy and justification for kingship although in Babylonia there were many changes of dynasty, in contrast to Assyria (compare the continuity of David’s line contrasted with the changes in Israel). Lists of kings were read in religious ceremonies commemorating the dead. It is likely that they were also used in historical discussion; see the Weidner Chronicle (Text 1.138).
There are several lists of Babylonian kings. Two tablets give the lengths of reign and names of the kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur and the Dynasty of Isin, from ca. 2112 to about 1812 BCE, when they were written (Ur–Isin King List). Another tablet, clearly a practice or note tablet, lists kings of the Dynasty of Larsa, ca. 2025–1738 BCE twice (Larsa King List). A similar one gives the Second Dynasty of Isin, ca. 1157–1069 BCE (King List C). Kings of the First Dynasty of Babylon and the Dynasty of the Sea–Land, ca. 1894–1500 BCE, are listed on another of Neo-Babylonian date (King List B). The “Genealogy of the Hammurabi Dynasty” was created for a funerary cult at which the spirits of the dead were pacified with offerings and the recitation of their names in order to prevent them from harming the living. This tablet lists nineteen names, then the kings of the First Dynasty of Babylon (Hammurabi Dynasty, ca. 1894–1595 BCE), titled “Dynasty of the Amorites,” followed by references to other ruling families and an attempt to ensure that all the dead were covered; see Finkelstein 1966, Lambert 1968. The principal Babylonian King List (A) gives all the rulers from the First Dynasty of Babylon until the end of Assyrian rule, with a note identifying each dynasty (palû), the number of its kings and its span. Regrettably, the tablet is damaged. Another composition, which is known in Akkadian and in bilingual Akkadian and Sumerian versions, begins in parallel with the Sumerian King List at the institution of monarchy and continues to the mid–eighth century BCE, with narrative passages that have led to its being called the “Dynastic Chronicle.” Two texts, both incomplete, cover later periods, one commencing with Kandalanu and reaching to Seleucus II, ca. 647–226 BCE (Uruk King List), the other running from Alexander to Demetrius II, ca. 330–125 BCE, with each entry set beside the appropriate year of the Seleucid era (Seleucid King List). Each of these texts was drawn from more extensive sources. All the texts, except the Genealogy of the Hammurabi Dynasty, are set out by Grayson 1980.
Genealogy of the Hammurabi Dynasty
Arammadara, Tubtiyamuta, Yamquzuhalamma, Heana, Namzû, Ditana, Zummabu, Namhû, Amnanu, Yahrurum, Iptiyamuta, Buzahum, Sumalika, Ashmadu, Abiyamuta, Abiditan, Mam[ ], Shu[ ], Dad[b]a[nâ], Sum[uabum], Sumula[el], Zabium, Apil–Sin, Sin–muballit, Hammurabi, Samsuiluna, Abieshuh, Ammidita[na];
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dynasty of Amorites, dynasty of Haneans, dynasty of Gutium;
any dynasty which is not written on this tablet and any soldier who fell in his master’s service;
royal sons, royal daughters, all mankind from sunrise to sunset,
who have no one to care for them or celebrate them,
come, eat this, drink this,
bless Ammisaduqa, king of Babylon!
King List A (col. iv)
[ ] Nabu–shum–ishkun, [his son]
[ ] Nabu–na[sir]
2 years Nabu–nadin–zeri, his son
1 month, 13 days Nabu–shum–ishkun, his son
_________________
22? dynasty of Babylon
_________________
3 years Ukin–zer, dynasty of Shapi
2 Pulu a
5 Ululayu, b dynasty of Ashur
12 Marduk–apla–iddin, c dynasty of the Sea–Land
5 Sargon
2 Sennacherib, dynasty of Habigal8
1 month Marduk–zakir–shumi, son of Ardu
9 months Marduk–apla–iddin, Habi soldier
3 years Bel–ibni, dynasty of Babylon
6 Ashur–nadin–shumi, dynasty of Habigal
1 Nergal–ushezib
5 Mushezib–Marduk, dynasty of Babylon
8 Sennacherib
[ ] Esarha f
[ ] Shamash–shum
[ ] Kandal
Seleucid King List
[ ] Alexander (III, the Great) [ ], Philip (III), brother of Alexander [ ]. For [x]1 years there was no king in the land; Antigonus (the One–eyed), the general, was in control]. Alexander (IV) son of Alexander (III), [ruled until] year 6 (of the Seleucid Era). Year 7 is the year Seleucus became king; he ruled for 25 years. Year 31, month of Elul, king Seleucus was killed in the north–west.…
[Year] 90, Antiochus (III, the Great) became king; he ruled for 35 [years. From year] 102 to year 119 Antiochus [ ] and Antiochus sons of the king. Year 125, month of Siwan, it was heard in Babylon that Antiochus (III) was killed on the 25th in Elam.
The same year Seleucus (IV, Philipator), his son, became king; he ruled for 12 years. Year 137, month of Elul, 10th day, king Seleucus died x x. The same month Antiochus (IV), g his son, became king; he ruled for 11 years. The sa[me year], in Arahsamna, Antiochus and Antiochus, his son, became kings. [Year 1]42, in Ab, king Antiochus, son of Antiochus, was executed at the command of king Antiochus (IV). [Year 14]3, Antiochus was king alone. [Year 148] in Kislev, it was reported that king Antiochus [had died].…
REFERENCES
ANET 271 (King List B), 272 (King List A), 566–567 (“Seleucid” King List); Studies: Chavalas 1994; Finkelstein 1966; Glassner 1993:145–146; Grayson 1980; Hallo 1978; Lambert 1968; Malamat 1968.
ASSYRIAN KING LISTS (1.135)
Alan Millard
Lists of Assyrian kings have been found at Assur, Nineveh and Dur-Sharrukin (Khorsabad). The ‘Assyrian King List’ is known in five copies, none complete, two being only small fragments; there are slight variants between them. It begins with names of nomadic kings who lived about 2000 BCE, which some scholars think may be names of tribes rather than persons because there are similarities between them and names in the Genealogy of the Hammurabi Dynasty (see Babylonian King Lists, Text 1.134 above); however, tribes may also be named after their progenitors (cf. the tribes of Israel). The scheme of the List is simple: royal name, father’s name, length of reign; each entry is separated from the next by a ruling. All copies share various short narrative passages and these are clearly part of the composition, not insertions by later hands, although it is clear that the opening sections were drawn from different sources. The purpose of the List was apparently to show continuity by collecting the names of all known rulers of Asshur considered to be “kings” (at least one is known today who is absent from the List; see Grayson ARI 1:29–30) and to supply relationships between them as far as possible. While there are evident links with the Eponym Canon (Text 1.136 below), the King List contains extra information, implying the existence of a more extensive record. Variant numbers of years and damage to the texts prevent construction of a complete chronology for Assyrian kings. There are small textual variations, given as alternatives in the translation, or mentioned in the footnotes. Two of the tablets, at least, had a tab at the top, pierced horizontally so that they could be fixed to a wall in such a way that someone could read the front, then lift up the tablet to read the back.
Fragments of two slightly different versions of the King List were found at Assur, and also five pieces of Synchronistic King Lists which set the names of the kings of Assyria in parallel with the kings of Babylon and vice–versa (cf. the synchronisms in Kings and Chronicles, e.g. 1 Kgs 15:1, 9), one adding the names of the viziers (ummânu) who served many of the kings (ANET 272–274). All the Assyrian King Lists are set out by Grayson 1980.
Tudiya, Adamu, Yangi, Suhlamu, Harharu, Mandaru, Imsu, Harsu, Didanu, Hanu, Zuabu, Nuabu, Abazu, Belu, Azarah, Ushpia, Apiashal.
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Total: 17 kings who lived in tents.
_________________
Aminu was son of Ilu–kabkabu, Ilu–kabkabu of Yazkur–el, Yazkur–el of Yakmeni, Yakmeni of Yakmesi, Yakmesi of Ilu–Mer, Ilu–Mer of Hayani, Hayani of Samani, Samani of Hale, Hale of Apiashal, Apiashal of Ushpia.
_________________
Total: 10 kings who are their ancestors?.
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Sulili son of Aminu; Kikkiya; Akiya; Puzur-Ashur (I); Shalim–ahhe; Ilu–shuma.
Total: 6 kings [named? on] brick, whose [number?] of eponyms is [unknown?].
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Erishu (I), son of Ilu–shuma, [whose x?], ruled for 30/40 years.
_________________
Ikunu, son of Erishu, ruled for [x years].
_________________
Sargon (I), son of Ikunu, ruled for [x years].
_________________
Puzur–Ashur (II), son of Sargon, ruled for [x years].
_________________
Naram–Sin, son of Puzur–Ashur, ruled for [x]4 years.
_________________
Erishu (II), son of Naram–Sin, ruled for [x] years.
_________________
Shamshi–Adad (I), son of Ilu–kabkabu, a went to Karduniash [in the t]ime of Naram–Sin. In the eponymate of Ibni–Adad, [Shamshi]–Adad [went up] from Karduniash. He took Ekallatum where he stayed three years. In the eponymate of Atamar-Ishtar, Shamshi–Adad went up from Ekallatum. He ousted Erishu (II), son of Naram–Sin, from the throne and took it. He ruled for 33 years.
_________________
Ishme–Dagan (I), son of Shamshi–Adad, ruled for 40 years.
_________________
Ashur–dugul, of no lineage, who had no title to the throne, ruled for 6 years.
_________________
In the time of Ashur–dugul, of no lineage, Ashur-apla–idi, Nasir–Sin, Sin–namir, Ipqi–Ishtar, Adad-salulu, Adasi, six kings of no lineage, ruled briefly.
_________________
Bel–bani, son of Adasi, ruled for 10 years.
_________________
Libaya, son of Bel–bani, ruled for 17 years.
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Sharma–Adad (I), son of Libaya, ruled for 12 years.
_________________
Iptar–Sin, son of Sharma–Adad, ruled for 12 years.
_________________
Bazaya, son of Iptar–Sin, ruled for 28 years.
_________________
Lullaya, of no lineage, ruled for 6 years.
_________________
Shu–Ninua, son of Bazaya, ruled for 14 years.
_________________
Sharma–Adad (II), son of Shu–Ninua, ruled for 3 years.
_________________
Erishu (III), son of Shu–Ninua, ruled for 13 years.
_________________
Shamshi–Adad (II), son of Erishu, ruled for 6 years.
_________________
Ishme–Dagan (II), son of Shamshi–Adad, ruled for 16 years.
_________________
Shamshi–Adad (III), son of Ishme–Dagan, brother of Sharma–Adad, son of Shu–Ninua, ruled for 16 years.
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Ashur–nerari (I), son of Ishme–Dagan, ruled for 26 years.
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Puzur–Ashur (III), son of Ashur–nerari, ruled for 24/14 years.
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Enlil–nasir (I), son of Puzur–Ashur, ruled for 13 years.
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Nur–ili, son of Enlil–nasir, ruled for 12 years.
_________________
Ashur–shaduni, son of Nur–ili, ruled for 1 month.
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Ashur–rabi (I), son of Enlil–nasir, ousted [Ashur-shaduni], seized the throne; [he ruled for x years.]
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Ashur–nadin–ahhe (I), son of Ashur–rabi, [ruled for x years.]
_________________
Enlil–nasir (II), his brother, [ousted] him; he ruled for 6 years.
_________________
Ashur–nerari (II), son of Enlil–nasir, ruled for 7 years.
_________________
Ashur–bel–nisheshu, son of Ashur–nerari, ruled for 9 years.
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Ashur–rem–nisheshu, son of Ashur–bel–nisheshu, ruled for 8 years.
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Ashur–nadin–ahhe (II), son of Ashur–rem–nisheshu, ruled for 10 years.
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Eriba–Adad (I), son of Ashur–bel–nisheshu, ruled for 27 years.
_________________
Ashur–uballit (I), son of Eriba–Adad, ruled for 36 years.
_________________
Enlil–nerari, son of Ashur–uballit, ruled for 10 years.
_________________
Arik–den–ili, son of Enlil–nerari, ruled for 12 years.
_________________
Adad–nerari (I), son of Arik–den–ili, ruled for 32 years.
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Shalmaneser (I), son of Adad–nerari, ruled for 30 years.
_________________
Tukulti–Ninurta (I), son of Shalmaneser, ruled for 37 years.
_________________
Tukulti–Ninurta … Ashur–nadin–apli, his son, seized the throne and ruled for 3/4 years.
_________________
Ashur–nerari (III), son of Ashur–nadin–apli, ruled for 6 years.
_________________
Enlil–kudurri–usur, son of Tukulti–Ninurta, ruled for 5 years.
_________________
Ninurta–apil–Ekur, son of Ili–hadda, a descendant of Eriba–Adad, went to Karduniash. He came up from Karduniash, seized the throne and ruled for 3/13 years.
_________________
Ashur–dan (I), son of Ninurta–apil–Ekur, ruled for 46 years.
_________________
Ninurta–tukulti–Ashur, son of Ashur–dan, ruled briefly.
_________________
Mutakkil–Nusku, his brother, fought him and took him to Karduniash. Mutakkil–Nusku held the throne briefly, then died.
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Ashur–resh–ishi (I), son of Mutakkil–Nusku, ruled for 18 years.
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Tiglath–pileser (I), son of Ashur–resh–ishi, ruled for 39 years.
_________________
Ashared–apil–Ekur, son of Tiglath–pileser, ruled for 2 years.
_________________
Ashur–bel–kala, son of Tiglath–pileser, ruled for 18 years.
_________________
Eriba–Adad (II), son of Ashur–bel–kala, ruled for 2 years.
_________________
Shamshi–Adad (IV), son of Tiglath–pileser, came up from Karduniash. He ousted Eriba–Adad, son of Ashur–bel–kala, seized the throne and ruled for 4 years.
_________________
Ashur[nasirpal (I), son of] Shamshi–Adad, ruled for 19 years.
_________________
Shalmaneser (II), son of Ashurnasirpal, ruled for [x]2 years.
_________________
Ashur–nerari (IV), son of Shalmaneser, ruled for 6 years.
_________________
Ashur–rabi (II), son of Ashurnasirpal, ruled for 41 years.
_________________
Ashur–resh–ishi (II), son of Ashur–rabi, ruled for 5 years.
_________________
Tiglath–pileser (II), son of Ashur–resh–ishi, ruled for 32 years.
_________________
Ashur–dan (II), son of Tiglath–pileser, ruled for 23 years.
_________________
Adad–nerari (II), son of Ashur–dan, ruled for 21 years.
_________________
Tukulti–Ninurta (II), son of Adad–nerari, ruled for 7 years.
_________________
Ashurnasirpal (II), son of Tukulti–Ninurta, ruled for 25 years.
_________________
Shalmaneser (III), son of Ashurnasirpal, ruled for 35 years.
_________________
Shamshi–Adad (V), son of Shalmaneser, ruled for 13 years.
_________________
Adad–nerari (III), son of Shamshi–Adad, ruled for 28 years.
_________________
Shalmaneser (IV), son of Adad–nerari, ruled for 10 years.
_________________
Ashur–dan (III), brother of Shalmaneser, ruled for 18 years.
_________________
Ashur–nerari (V), son of Adad–nerari, ruled for 10 years.
_________________
Tiglath–pileser (III), son of Ashur–nerari, ruled for 18 years.
_________________
Shalmaneser (V), son of Tiglath–pileser, ruled for 5 years.
_________________
REFERENCES
ANET 564–566; Borger, Asarh.; Glassner 1993:146–151; Grayson ARI. 1:6–8; 1980:101–125.
ASSYRIAN EPONYM CANON (1.136)
Alan Millard
From the nineteenth century BCE onwards, Assyrian documents bear dates in the form “day X, month Y, līmu Personal Name.” The līmu, “eponym,” was an official who gave his name to the year. Little is known about the operation of the system before the first millennium BCE and nothing of its origin. (It may be compared with the systems of archons in Greece and consuls in Rome.) For the system to operate, scribes had to have lists of the officials in their sequence in order to be able to calculate how long ago a deed of loan, for example, had been written. No simple lists from the earliest period have been found, but from Mari has come an “Eponym Chronicle” in five fragmentary copies, listing over sixty names with a note of a significant event beside many of them, for the years about 1850–1775 BCE (for translation see Glassner 1993:157–160). This anticipates by a thousand years the Eponym Chronicle for the Neo–Assyrian period. Whatever the purpose of these chronicles was — and, as for the Babylonian Chronicles (text 1.137), it is unknown — they prove a concern for recording precisely the dates of important happenings and so give a basis for exploring the past. From Assur there is a damaged list of eponyms’ names which began about 1200 BCE, but the sequence can only be restored completely from 910 down to 649, thanks to the Eponym Lists, simple lists of the names from Assur, Nineveh and Sultantepe, and the Eponym Chronicles from Nineveh and Sultantepe. The kings in the later period held the office in the second full year of their reigns, until Sennacherib broke the custom, their appearances in the sequence giving a helpful link with the King Lists (texts 1.134 and 1.135). The key date in the Eponym Chronicle is the entry for 763 BCE, reporting a solar eclipse. The eponym dates were used to pin–point when military campaigns were undertaken and royal monuments erected, and so provide invaluable aid in computing the chronologies of various surrounding states whose records are meagre or imprecise and, in particular, the chronology of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The texts covering 910–612 BCE are edited in Millard 1994. Extracts only are given here.
805 BCE In the eponymate of Ashur–taklak, chamberlain, against Arpad.
804 BCE In the eponymate of Ilu–issiya, governor of Assur, against Hazaz.
803 BCE In the eponymate of Nergal–eresh, governor of Rasappa, against Baʾal.
773 BCE In the eponymate of Mannu–ki–Adad, governor of Raqmat, against Damascus.
765 BCE In the eponymate of Ninurta–mukin-nishi, of Habruri, against Hatarikka; plague.
763 BCE In the eponymate of Bur–sagale, of Guzan, revolt in the citadel of Assur; in the month of Siwan there was an eclipse of the sun.
755 BCE In the eponymate of Iqisu, of Shibhinish, against Hatarikka.
754 BCE In the eponymate of Ninurta-shezibanni, of Talmush, against Arpad; return from Assur.
745 BCE In the eponymate of Nabu–belu-usur, of Arrapha, in Ayar on the 13th day, Tiglath-pileser (III) sat himself on the throne; in Teshrit he went to the land at the river’s bend.7
743 BCE In the eponymate of Tiglath–pileser, king of Assyria, against Arpad, defeat inflicted on Urartu.
742 BCE In the eponymate of Nabu-daʾʾinanni, commander in chief, d against Arpad.
741 BCE In the eponymate of Bel–Harran–belu-uṣur, palace herald, e against Arpad, conquered after 3 years.
738 BCE In the eponymate of Adad-belu-kaʾʾin, governor of Ashur, Kullani conquered.
734 BCE In the eponymate of Bel–dan, of Kalah, against Philistia.
733 BCE In the eponymate of Ashur-daʾʾinanni, of Mazamua, against Damascus. g
732 BCE In the eponymate of Nabu-belu-uṣur, of Siʾmê, against Damascus.
REFERENCES
Finkelstein 1962; Glassner 1993:161–170; Mettinger 1971; Millard 1976; 1994.
THE BABYLONIAN CHRONICLE (1.137)
Alan Millard
The series of cuneiform tablets known as The Babylonian Chronicle covers the years from 745 BCE into the late Seleucid period (2nd century BCE). Entries follow a chronological order, introduced by the year of reign of the king of Babylon, although not every year is included. Warfare is the most common topic, within Babylonia and beyond, the accessions and deaths of kings are noted, the celebration or lapse of the New Year Festival in Babylon and a variety of other subjects. Some years have single, short entries, some longer, more detailed ones, or reports of several events. All the Babylonian Chronicle tablets appear to be excerpts from more extensive compositions, for where some overlap they do not give identical information. Perhaps a form of diary was kept on wax–covered wooden writing boards (Millard 1980). Although this type of chronicle is only known from the 6th century and later in Babylonia, some tablets report events from earlier centuries, indicating that older records remained available (cf. Assyrian Eponym Canon 1.136 above). One, commencing at the start of history, notes the burial places of various kings from about 1000 BCE, another lists market prices in various reigns. Most of the texts were re–edited by Grayson ABC, whose numbering is followed here. All known examples were translated by Glassner 1993. Extracts only are given here.
(Chronicle 1 i 27–32)
727 BCE On 27th Tebet Shalmaneser (V) c ascended the throne in Assyria and Babylonia. He shattered Samaria (šá-ma-ra-ʾ-in). d
722 BCE Year 5: Shalmaneser died in Tebet. Five years Shalmaneser ruled Babylonia and Assyria. On 12th Tebet Sargon e ascended the throne in Assyria. In Nisan Merodach–baladan f ascended the throne in Babylon.
(Chronicle 1 iii 34–38)
681 BCE On 20th Tebet Sennacherib g king of Assyria – his son killed him in a revolt. h For [24] years Sennacherib ruled over Assyria. From 20th Tebet until 2nd Adar the revolt continued in Assyria. On [1/2]8th Adar Esarhad-don j, his son, ascended the throne of Assyria.
(Chronicle 5 1–11)
605 BCE [Year 21:] the king of Babylon was in his country. Nebuchadrezzar9 , his eldest son, the crown prince, [called] out the [army of Babylon], took the van and went to Carchemish10 on the bank of the Euphrates. He crossed the river [to face the army of Egypt] which was camped at Carchemish. […] they fought together and the army of Egypt fled before him. He defeated them utterly. The rest of the army of [Egypt, which] had escaped from the defeat and which the army of Babylon had not conquered, the army defeated in the district of Hamath so that [not] a single man [returned] to his country. At that time Nebuchadrezzar conquered the whole of Hamath. Nabopolassar ruled Babylon for 21 years. On 8th Ab he died. In Elul Nebuchadrezzar returned to Babylon and on 1st Elul he ascended the throne in Babylon.
(rev. 11–13)
598/597 Year 7: in Kislev the king of Babylonia
BCE called out his army and marched to Hattu. He set his camp against the city of Judah [Ya-a-ḫu-du] and on 2nd Adar he took the city and captured the king. m He appointed a king of his choosing there, took heavy tributeo and returned to Babylon.
(Chronicle 7 iii 12–16)
539 BCE In Tishri when Cyrus fought with the army of Babylon at Opis on the bank of the Tigris, the people of Babylon retreated. He took booty and killed people. On 14th Sippar was taken without battle. Nabonidus fled. On 16th Ugbaru, governor of Gutium, and the army of Cyrus entered Babylon without battle. Afterwards, after Nabonidus had retreated, he was taken in Babylon.
(Chronicle 7 iii 18)
539 BCE On 3rd Marcheswan Cyrus entered Babylon. p
REFERENCES
ANET 301–307; Brinkman 1964; 1991; Glassner 1993:179–204; Grayson ABC 8–126; 1991; Millard 1976; 1980; Parpola 1980; Tadmor 1958; Whitcomb 1959; Wiseman 1965:9–16.
THE WEIDNER CHRONICLE (1.138)
Alan Millard
Excavations at Ashur yielded a damaged tablet which was announced by E. F. Weidner in 1926 and so is called after him. Since then four smaller pieces of other copies have been identified and recently an almost complete tablet was recovered from Sippar, adding greatly to the interpretation of the text, although many uncertainties and gaps remain. The composition is set in the form of a letter from a king of Babylon to a king of Isin in the 19th century BCE, but probably composed centuries later. The propagandist aim is clear from the outset: the offerings for the god Marduk in his temple Esagila in Babylon were decreed by the gods, so the writer recounts the fate of various kings who brought, or failed to bring, offerings to Esagila or respect for it. Thus their attitudes to the god affected his treatment of the kings.
“Say to [Apil–S]in?, ki[ng of Babyl]on?, thus says Damiq–ilishu?, king of Isin:
‘[ ] like [ ] his reign. I [mys]elf have written to you a matter to be pondered, a matter [ ], but you have not considered them. You have not listened or paid attention to the advice I gave you, nor heeded the special advice that [ ], you have been looking for something else. To do you a good turn [I have ] you, but it is not in your mind. For your own good I have advised you to reinforce the training? of your army, but you have not put your hand to it. His sh[rines] where I sought advice [ ] has ceased. Now I shall tell you my experience [ ] learn from it speedily!
I offered a sacrifice to my lady Ninkarrak, mistress of Egalmah; I prayed and implored her, I told her the matter that I was constantly considering, and I spoke like this: “Entrust to me the people of Sumer and Akkad [ ] all the lands. Let the people of the Upper and the Lower lands bring their weighty tribute into Egalmah.” In the night–time, holy Gula, the exalted lady, stood before me, she heard my speech, spoke to me clearly and blessed me. “You shall set a place in the underground water, in the ocean beneath the earth, [ ] you shall raise the top to the distant sky, in x [ ] above, a state of privilege. [Aft]erwards, Marduk, the king of the gods, who [ ] the whole of heaven and earth, [will the peop]le of Sumer and Akkad to his city Babylon x x x. He went quickly to his father, Ea, the craftsman, the counsellor of heaven and earth. “[May Bab]ylon, the city chosen in my heart, be exalted among all people! May Esagila, the majestic shrine, be [ ] to the limits of heaven and earth! May the lord of lords, who dwells in the shrine, from east to west, x x x x! May he shepherd human beings like sheep! May the city be famous x x x!” The lord Nudimmud [carried out] all he had said. Throughout heaven he honored him [ ].
Then Anu and Enlil, the great gods, favored him and [decreed?]. “May he be the leader of the Upper and the Lower lands. May the great gods of heaven and earth tremble before his shrine. Raise up to the sky the top of Esagila, of Ekua, the palace of heaven and earth [ ]. May its foundation be fixed like sky and earth forever! By your sacrifice I understood what you said and [I have given to you?] long life [ ]. Apart from the order announced in the dream, good advice for [ ]. For the gods of that city, the great gods of heaven and earth, x x for daily, monthly and yearly purification/ renewal of life? x x x no god shall oppose it x x whose mind x x x at his command they are bound, the hostile gods clad in dirty clothes x x x whoever sins against the gods of that city, his star shall not stand in the sky x x x his kingship will end, his scepter will be taken away, his treasury will become a heap of [ruins] x x x his x x and the king of the whole of heaven and earth (said) thus?, “The gods of heaven and earth x [ ] the behavior of each former king of which I hear to x x x [ ].
Akka, son of Enmebaragesi x x x x [ ]. Enmekar, king of Uruk, destroyed the people x x x x. The sage Adapa, son of x x x heard in his holy sanctuary and cursed Enmekar. [ ] he/I gave to him rule over all lands and his rites [ ] he/I beautified like the heavenly writing (the constellations) and in Esagila the king who controls the whole of heaven and earth for his 3,020 years x x x. In the reign of Puzur–Nirah, king of Akshak, the freshwater fishermen of Esagila [ ] were catching fish for the meal of the great lord Marduk; the officers of the king took away the fish. The fisherman was fishing when 7/8 days had passed [ ] in the house of Kubaba, the tavern–keeper, x x x they brought to [Esag]ila. (At that time BROKEN anew for Esagila x x x) Kubaba gave bread to the fisherman and gave water, she [made him offer?] the fish to Esagila. Marduk, the king, prince of the Apsû, favored her and said, “Let it be so!’ He entrusted to Kubaba, the tavern–keeper, sovereignty over the whole world. Ur–Zababa [ordered] Sargon, his cupbearer, to change the wine libations of Esagila. Sargon did not change but was careful to offer [ ] quickly to Esagila. Marduk, king of the world/ son of the prince of the Apsu, favored him and gave him rule of the four corners of the world. He took care of Esagila. Everyone who sat on a throne [brought] his tribute to Babylon. Yet he [ignored] the command Bel had given him.a He dug soil from its pit and in front of Akkad he built a city which he named Babylon. Enlil changed the order he had given and from east to west (people) opposed him. He could not sleep. Naram–Sin destroyed the people of Babylon, so twice (Marduk) summoned the forces of Gutium6 against him. They [maltreated?] his people with a goad. He (Marduk) gave his kingship to the Gutian force. The Gutians were unhappy people unaware how to revere the gods, ignorant of the right cultic practices. Utu–hegal, the fisherman, caught a fish at the edge of the sea for an offering. That fish should not be offered to another god until it had been offered to Marduk, but the Guti took the boiled fish from his hand before it was offered, so by his august command, he (Marduk) removed the Guti force from the rule of his land and gave (it) to Utu–hegal. Utu-hegal, the fisherman, carried out criminal acts against his (Marduk’s) city, so the river carried off his corpse.7 Then he (Marduk) gave sovereignty over the whole world to Shulgi, son of Ur–Nammu, but he did not perform his rites to the letter, he defiled his purification rituals and his sin x x body? x [was s]et?. Amar–Sin, his son, changed the offerings of large ox[en] and sheep of the New Year festival in Esagila. It was foretold (he would die) from goring by an ox, but he died from the “bite’ of his shoe. Shu–Sin made Esagila like the constellations for his well–being. BROKEN what Shulgi did, his sin his son, Ibbi–Sin, [ ]. BROKEN a former king who preceded x x x x your desire and over his father Ea, the heaven and earth x x he did not create. Anu and Ishtar x x his majestic son, the great lord Marduk, [king?] of the gods, whom the gods x x, his (Ea’s) grandson Nabu, who x x x he will name the king.
To his descendant Sumu-la–El, the king, whose name Anu pro[nounced], for your well–being and x x all of it a pea[ceful?] dwelling place, a lasting rule? in your hand.
REFERENCES
Al–Rawi 1990; Arnold 1994; Glassner 1993:215–218; Grayson ABC, 43–45, 147–151.
3. ROYAL HYMNS
A HYMN CELEBRATING ASSURNASIRPAL II’S CAMPAIGNS TO THE WEST (1.139)
(LKA 64)
Victor Hurowitz
This text was found by the German excavations at Assur in the house of a nargallu (chief singer). It begins as a hymn to Enlil (Assur),2 but then praises Assurnasirpal II (883–859 BCE) for his campaigns to the mountains in the west and for contributing to various temples the wood taken on the campaigns. It ends with a blessing of the king. The events referred to are described in detail in the king’s annals and mentioned briefly in his royal titles.4
Invocation (obv. lines 1–3)
I will sing to the king of the ends of the earth
the prince of the gods may I praise;
Of Enlil who dwells in Esharra,8
may I glorify his divinity.
Presentation of King Assurnasirpal II (obv. lines 4–6)
Aššur-nāṣir-apli the obstinate,
the desire of the great gods;
(5) The son of Tukulti-Ninurta,
in fame is glorified.
By the lances (?) of his battle,
(he is) king of the huntsmen,
(who) knocks over all foreign rulers. a
The Campaign to Lebanon (obv. line 7 – rev. line 11)
He left the city of Kalhu,14
to the mountain of Lebanon he took the road.
To wage his war,
(10) the city of Carchemish he approached —
which is in the land of Hatti.
In order to (show the) strength of my rule,
the possessions of his palace I plundered;18
A valuable image of my likeness,
for his temples I glorified.
The Kummuheans and Patinians,22
radiance overwhelmed them.
(15) [They brought] to him possessions,
ebony and lapis lazuli he constantly received.26
The daughter of the king of the [Pat]inians
for making merry are your […].
All the [en]ds of the earth I roamed,
(20) to the Amanus mountains I ascended over and over again.30
[Tw]o times …] pure sacrifices to [the gods]
[I sacrificed ] to […]
Reverse (rev. lines 1–6)
…] … […
his […] all the land [of …]
…] … […
[…] wood … […]
(5) … the l]and (?) of Ha-ra-[ …]
sacrifices […] … […]
Presentation of the Wood in the Temples (rev. lines 7–12)
Beams of cedar from the Aman[us …]
[he carried off] and took to Eshar[ra]
[to the temple, the shr]i[ne, to the temple of happiness, to the temple
of Sin] and Shamash [great/holy gods.]
They entered into Esharra; [verb]
by the lifting of his eyes.
Divine Blessing for Assurnasirpal (rev. lines 13–14)
“The king is beloved of my heart,
Aššur-nāṣir-apli the governor.”
Colophon (rev. line 15)
(15) Acc]ording to Sukuja it was written.
REFERENCES
Text LKA 64. No previous editions, translations or studies. Brinkman 1968:393–394; Cogan 1984; Conradie 1989; de Filippi 1977; Groneberg 1987; Hawkins 1972–1975; 1980–1983. Hurowitz and Westenholtz 1992; Ikeda 1978; 1984–1985; Lambert 1957–58:43; Livingstone 1989; Pedersén 1986; Reade 1989.
A PRAYER FROM A CORONATION RITUAL OF THE TIME OF TUKULTI-NINURTA I (1.140)
Alasdair Livingstone
(1) May Assur and Ninlil, the lords of your crown, set your crown on your head for a hundred years!
(3) May your foot in Ekur and your hands stretched toward the breast of Assur, your god, be agreeable!
(4) May your priesthood and the priesthood of your sons be agreeable to Assur, your god! With your straight scepter widen your land! May Assur give you authority, obedience, concord, justice and peace!
REFERENCES
Müller 1937:4–89 and obv. col. ii.30–36.
A HYMN TO NANAYA WITH A BLESSING FOR SARGON II (1.141)
Alasdair Livingstone
Obverse
I.1´ [… she grasps in her hand] the naked sword, [the emblem of Nergal], and the pointed axe,
appropriate to the [Pleiades].
Right and left, battle is set in lines.
I.5´ She is the foremost of the gods, whose play is combat, she who leads the coalition of the seven demons.
Musicians of wide repertoire are seated before her, performers on the lyre, the harpsichord, the clappers, the flute, the oboe, the long pipes.
I.10´ The jesters calm her heart with spindles, whiplashes and with sweet […]s.
[…] … of loveliness of …
They wear armbands … […]
[…] a bunch of grapes […]
I.15´ [their] hands are weighed down with […] of the finest gold
[…] their noses […]
Their [….
II.1´ […] Nanaya […]
The daughter-in-law of Esagil … […], the wife of Muati, the darling of Bel, [his] father, whom Belet-ili honored among the goddesses.
II.3´ Go forth, depart, female warrior of the goddesses, capable one who adorns the function of the warrior,
II.7´ […] of the unmerciful, belligerent heart (?),
II.8´ […] to the end of days perform their […]!
Reverse
I.3´ [O world, hearken to the praise of the queen], Nanaya!
[Exalt the beautiful one, magnify the] resonant one!
I.5´ [Extol the exalted one, adore with praise] the powerful one!
[Beseech her and pray to her constantly!]
II.1´ Even a capable […] whom [she does not guide], […] a gift […];
The bridal gift of an open […], whom she [does not guide], is […];
II.5´ Even a wise exorcist, whom she does not guide, where is his expertise? His perambulations […]
The hand of even an erudite physician, whom she does not guide, is powerless before his patients!
Without her, who can achieve anything?
II.10´ Journey far, hasten, learn how she is praised!
Honor the merciful one monthly, for ever,
she who can make rich the destitute, bring abundance to the poor!
Hear, O world, the praise of the queen, Nanaya!
Exalt the beautiful one, magnify the resonant one!
II.15´ Extol the exalted one, adore with praise the powerful one!
Beseech and pray to her constantly!
_________________
Calm down, daughter of Sin, settle in your sanctuary!
Bless Sargon, who holds fast to the hem of your garment, the shepherd of Assyria, who walks behind you!
II.20´ Decree for him as his fate a life of long days! Make firm the foundations of his throne, prolong his reign!
Protect the stallions harnessed to [his] yoke!
Keep affliction and weakness distant from his body!
II.24´ The evil locust which ravages the grain, the malignant grasshopper which dries up the orchards, which would cut off the regular offerings of god and goddess, — Enlil listens to you, Tutu obeys you — may it (the grasshopper) be counted as nought!
The genie and protective spirit which stand before you […]
II.30´ […] plains, mountains […]
REFERENCES
Foster BM 709–711; Livingstone 1989:13–16; Martin 1903:196ff.; MacMillan 1906:564.
ASSURBANIPAL’S CORONATION HYMN (1.142)
Alasdair Livingstone
This text should be read together with the Middle Assyrian Coronation Ritual Prayer and the Late Piece of Constructed Mythology (see text 1.146 below).
(1) May Shamash, king of heaven and earth, raise you to shepherdship over the four regions!
May Assur, who gave you the [scepter], prolong your days and years!
Spread your land wide at your feet!
May Sherua extol your name to your personal god!
(5) Just as grain and silver, oil, the cattle of Shakan and the salt of Bariku3 are good, so may Assurbanipal be favored by the gods of his land!
May eloquence, understanding, truth and justice be granted him as a gift!
(9) May the [population] of Assur buy thirty kor of grain for one shekel of silver! May the [population] of Assur buy three seah of oil for one shekel of silver! May the [population] of Assur buy thirty minas of wool for one shekel of silver!
(12) May the lesser speak and the [greater] listen!
May the greater speak and the [lesser] listen! May concord and peace be established in Assyria!
(15) Assur is king — indeed Assur is king! Assurbanipal is the [representative] of Assur, the creation of his hands!
May the great gods make his reign firmly established! May they guard the life of Assurbanipal, king of Assyria!
May they give him a straight scepter to widen his land and peoples!
May his reign be renewed and may they firmly establish his royal throne for ever!
Daily, monthly and yearly may they bless him and guard his reign!
(20) During his years may rains from heaven and floods from the underground source be steady!
Give our lord, Assurbanipal, long [days], copious years, great strength, a long reign, years of abundance, good repute and fame, health and well-being, a propitious oracle and leadership over other kings!
At this point there is the following instruction to a priest:
Reverse
(3) Having pronounced this blessing, he turns round and pronounces a further blessing at the opening of the censer in front of Shamash:
(5) Anu gave his crown, Enlil his throne; Ninurta gave his weapon; Nergal gave his awesome luminance. Nusku made a deputation and placed advisers before him.
(9) Anyone who speaks with the king deceitfully or falsely, if a notable, will be killed with a weapon, if a rich man, will become impoverished.
As for him who privately plots evil against the king, Erra will call him to account with murderous plague.
He who privately utters malicious talk against the king, his property is wind and his garment hem litter.
(15) Gather round, all gods of heaven and earth, and bless Assurbanipal, the circumspect king!
Place in his hand the weapon of combat and battle and give him the black-headed people, that he may rule as their shepherd!
REFERENCES
Foster BM 2:713–714; Livingstone 1989:26–27; Weidner 1939–41:210ff.
AN ASSURBANIPAL HYMN FOR SHAMASH (1.143)
Alasdair Livingstone
(1) Light of the great gods, resplendent illuminator of the universe,
Lofty judge, shepherd of the celestial and earthly regions,
As if they were cuneiform signs you watch over all lands with your light!
You are one who does not become tired by divination, daily making the decisions for the denizens of heaven and earth!
(5) At your coming out, blazing fire, all the stars of heaven become invisible!
You alone are supremely brilliant, no one among the gods can rival with you!
You consult with Sîn, your father, and then give instructions.
Anu and Enlil cannot give counsel without you!
Ea, who decides cases, looks up to you from the Apsu!
(10) All the gods pay attention at your bright appearance!
They smell the incense and accept the pure offerings!
Beneath you [kneel] the exorcists, to avert omens of evil!
The diviners stand at attention before you, to make their hands fit to receive oracular commands!
[I am] your [servant], Assurbanipal, whom by means of divination you commanded to exercise kingship,
(15) who praises your bright divinity, honors the symbol of your divinity,
[who proclaims] your greatness, makes manifest your praise to the far-flung peoples!
Reverse
(1) Judge his case, make the decision for him for well-being!
May it be appointed for him, that he walk safely in the light of your rising!
May he constantly shepherd over your peoples, whom you gave him, in justice.
[In the temple] which he set up — and in which he caused you to dwell in joyousness —
(5) may his heart be elated, his spirit rejoice, be sated with life!
Whoever gives praise, sings this, and names the name of Assurbanipal,
may he shepherd the peoples of Enlil in abundance and justice!
Whoever learns this text by heart and honors the judge of the gods, Shamash,
may he bring into esteem his [words], make good his command over the people!
(10) Whoever should nullify this song, or not praise Shamash, the light of the great gods,
or who should change the name of Assurbanipal, whom by means of divination Shamash appointed to exercise his kingship, or who names the name of another king,
(13) may his string music be painful to those who listen, his exultation as the thorn of a bush.
REFERENCES
SAHG 5; ANET 386; Foster, BM 2:725f.
AN ASSURBANIPAL PRAYER FOR MULLISSU (1.144)
Alasdair Livingstone
(1) […] … […]
[…] she provides […]
[…] … she is in authority, does not … […]
[…], who grants scepter, throne, and a long reign,
(5) [who makes] their offspring abundant, fashions totality,
[…]. at its mention the Igigi tremble.
[At its …] who made the Anunnaki tremble.
[Humanity], — mankind, the black-headed people, beseech you for their lives!
Merciful, sparing [sovereign], who grants clemency,
(10) [who makes joyful] the wandering vagrant, takes the hand of the one in extremity,
[who looks to] the wronged and the one in mortal danger, who restores life to the one on his deathbed,
she who can alter the status of the weak and the lowly,
that is you, queen, lady of clemency and peace!
You establish clemency, cause peace to come into being!
(15) Mullissu is the one who give peace and life to whoever enters her shrine!
I am your servant, Assurbanipal, whom your hands created,
whom without father and mother you brought up and raised to greatness.
Your […] … you blossom constantly with life, and you protected my life!
[…] I recite your glorification, I rejoice in your concord!
(20) […] greatly, one who values […] …
[…] her […] is praised.
Reverse
(1) […] lady of kind deeds, the city […]
[…] and you made me rejoice!
[Mullissu, lady] of the gods, it is to you that I have turned!
You know both to [save from disaster] and to spare; I have seized the hem of your garment!
(5) I have been enduring […], I cannot bear it!
[Through a misdeed] which I am or am not aware of, I have become weak!
[Through an offense, which] I am or am not aware of, may I not come to an end, lady!
[Through any crime] which I may have committed since the time of my youth
[or] the mentioning of a god, whether knowingly or unknowingly, I express great regret!
(10) May evil be driven away daily, lady!
May your pleasant [breeze] waft and the darkness be illuminated!
In the distress and extremity which oppress me, take my hand!
May any detractor of mine who exults over me not prosper!
[May I have life and prosperity], that I may constantly praise the deeds of your divinity!
_________________
(15) […] a spontaneous wish, a prayer for Mullissu, the merciful queen, by one who stands attentively before her.
(Colophon)
(i) [Palace] of Assurbanipal, king of the universe, king of Assyria, son of Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, grandson of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, who trusts in Assur and Mullissu. [He who] trusts in you will not come to shame, O Assur, king of the gods!
(v) [He who erases my written name or the name of my favorite brother] by any devious action, [… or] they destroy, are hostile to his land, [may Assur] and Mullissu [with rage and fury overthrow him]!
REFERENCES
OECT 6:pl. xiii 72ff.
DIALOGUE BETWEEN ASSURBANIPAL AND NABU (1.145)
Alasdair Livingstone
(1) In the assembly of the great gods [I constantly] speak in your adulation, Nabu! May the [assembly] of my detractors not take control of me!
(3) [In the temple of the Queen of] Nineveh I approach you, hero among the gods, his gods, his brothers. You are the eternal trust of Assurbanipal!
(5) [Since I was a small] child I have lain at the feet of Nabu! Nabu, do not leave me to the assembly of my detractors!
(7) Please listen, Assurbanipal! I am Nabu! Until the end of time your feet shall not falter nor your hands tremble. Your lips shall not tire in praying to me, nor your tongue be twisted on your lips, for I shall give you pleasant speech. I will raise your head and give you great stature in É.MAŠ.MAŠ.
_________________
(13) Nabu continues to speak: Your pleasant mouth, which prays ever to Ishtar of Uruk! Your figure, which I created, prays for ever to me in É.MAŠ.MAŠ!
(16) Your fate, which I created, prays ever to me thus: “Bring order into É.GAŠAN.KALAM. MA!” “The breath of your life prays ever to me: ‘Give long life to Assurbanipal!’ ”
_________________
(19) Assurbanipal is kneeling on his knees and prays ever to Nabu, his lord: “Listen please, to not leave me! My life is spelt out before you, my soul safe kept in the lap of Mullissu. Listen please, mighty Nabu, do not leave me amongst my detractors!”
_________________
(23) There answered a dream god from the presence of Nabu, his lord: “Fear not, Assurbanipal, I will give you long life! I will entrust favorable winds with the breath of your life! My pleasant mouth shall ever bless you in the assembly of the great gods!”
_________________
Reverse
(1) Assurbanipal opened his fists, ever praying to Nabu, his lord: “May he who grasps the feet of the Queen of Nineveh not come to shame in the assembly of the great gods! May he who kneels by the hem of Ishtar of Uruk not come to shame in the assembly of his detractors. Do not leave me in the assembly of my detractors, O Nabu! Do not leave the breath of my life to the assembly of those who would take issue against me!”
_________________
(6) “You were a child, Assurbanipal, when I left you with the Queen of Nineveh; you were a baby, Assurbanipal, when you sat on the lap of the Queen of Nineveh! Her four teats were placed in your mouth: two you would suckle and two you would milk before you!”
_________________
(9) Your detractors, Assurbanipal, will fly away like pollen (?) on the surface of the water! They will be squashed before your feet like fat spring insects! You, Assurbanipal, will stand before the great gods and praise Nabu!
REFERENCES
Livingstone 1989:13; SAHG 39:292.
A LATE PIECE OF CONSTRUCTED MYTHOLOGY RELEVANT TO THE NEO-ASSYRIAN AND MIDDLE ASSYRIAN CORONATION HYMN AND PRAYER (1.146)
Alasdair Livingstone
(1) […] … […
Their faces were turned away […
Bēlet-ilī, their lady, was frightened by their silence;
she spoke out to Ea, the exorcist:
(5) “The toil of the gods has become wearisome to them!
… […]. belt. […]
Their faces are turned away, and enmity has broken out!
Let us create a figure of clay and impose the toil on it
and relieve them from their exertions for ever.”
(10) Ea began to speak, addressing Bēlet-ilī:
“You are Bēlet-ilī, the lady of the great gods.
[…] … later
[…] … […] … his hands.”
Bēlet-ilī pinched off clay for him.
(15) Craftily she made clever things.
[…] she purified and mixed clay to create him.
[…] she decorated his body,
[…] his whole stature.
She put a … […]
(20) She put a … […]
She put a … […]
[…] she placed on [his] body.
Enlil, hero of the great gods, […]
[as soon as he saw him] his own features beamed!
(25) […] took a comprehensive view of […] in the assembly of the great gods.
his […], he gave final perfection to the created being.
Enlil, the hero of the great gods […]
Let me determine his name as [lullū-man],
and gave the order to make him bear the toil of the gods.
(30) Ea began to speak, addressing Bēlet-ilī:
“You are Bēlet-ilī, lady of the great gods!
It is you who have created lullû-man,
now create a king, a man to be in control!
Encircle the whole of his body with something fine.
(35) Finish perfectly his appearance, make his body beautiful!
So Bēlet-ilī created the king, the man to be in control.
The great gods gave to the king the power of battle.
Anu gave his crown, Enlil his [throne].
Nergal gave his weapons, Ninurta his [terrifying splendor].
(40) Bēlet-ilī gave [his] beautiful countenance.
Nusku gave directions, gave counsel and stood in service [before him].
Anyone who speaks with the king [deceitfully or falsely],
if a notable […]
REFERENCES
Mayer 1987:55ff.
4. FICTIONAL ROYAL AUTOBIOGRAPHY
THE ADAD-GUPPI AUTOBIOGRAPHY (1.147)
Tremper Longman III
In 1906 H. Pognon discovered a much-broken stela at Eski Harran (Nab. H 1, A). The text left many questions unanswered but was identified as composed for either the mother or grandmother of Nabonidus. Happily, D. S. Rice discovered a duplicate in the pavement steps of the northern entrance to the Great Mosque at Harran (Nab. H 2, A). Both texts had been used to construct the steps leading to the mosque. The text has been transliterated and translated by Gadd, but no copy has yet been made.
Introduction (Column I, lines 1–5)
I am Adad-guppi, mother of Nabunaid, king of Babylon, a worshipper1 of Sin, Ningal, Nusku, and Sadarnunna, my gods, for whose divinity I have cared since my youth.
Autobiographical Narrative (Column 1, line 5 to column III, line 43’ [the following extract is through Column II, line 11])
Whereas in the sixteenth year of Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, Sin, the king of the gods, became angry with his city and his house, and went up to heaven (with the result that) the city and its people were transformed into a ruin.b During that time I cared for the sanctuaries of Sin, Ningal, Nusku, and Sadarnunna, since I revered their deity. Sin, the king of the gods, I was constantly3 beseeching. I daily, without fail, cared for his great deity. I was a worshipper of Sin, Shamash, Ishtar, and Adad all of my life (whether) in heaven or on earth. My fine possessions that they gave to me, I gave back to them, daily, nightly, monthly, yearly. I was continually beseeching Sin. Gazing at him5 prayerfully and in humility, I knelt before them. Thus (I said): “May your return to your city take place.e May the black-headed people worship your great divinity.” In order to appease the heart of my god and my goddess, I did not put on a garment of excellent wool, silver, gold, a fresh garment; I did not allow perfumes (or) fine oil to touch my body. I was clothed in a torn garment. My fabric was sackcloth.7 I proclaimed their praises.g The fame of my god and goddess were set (firmly) in my heart. I stood their watch. I served them food.8
From the twentieth year of Assurbanipal, king of Assur, in which I was born, until the forty-second year of Assurbanipal, the third year of Assur-etillu-ili, his son, the twenty-first year of Nabopolasser, the forty-third year of Nebuchadnezzar, the second year of Awel-Marduk,k the fourth year of Neriglissar — for ninety-five years I cared for Sin, the king of the gods of heaven and earth, and for the sanctuaries of his great divinity. He looked upon me and my good deeds with joy. Having heard my prayersm and agreeing to my request, the wrath of his heart calmed. He was reconciled with Eḫulḫul, Sin’s house, located in the midst of Harran, his favorite dwelling.
Sin, the king of the gods, looked upon me. He called Nabunaid, my only son, my offspring, to kingship. He personally delivered9 the kingship of Sumer and Akkad, from the border of Egypt and the upper sea, to the lower sea, all the land.
I lifted my hands to Sin, the king of the gods, reverently in prayerp: [Thus (I said): “Nabunaid is (my) son, my offspring, beloved of his mother]. II:1 You are the one who called him to kingship and have spoken his name by your own divine utterance. (Now) may the great gods go at his side. May they fell his enemies. Do not forget Eḫulḫul but complete and restore its rites.”
When, in my dream, Sin, the king of the gods, had set his hands (on me), he said thus: “Through you I will bring about the return of the gods (to) the dwelling in Harran, by means of Nabunaid your son. He will construct Eḫulḫul; he will complete its work. He will complete the city Harran greater than it was before and restore it. He will bring Sin, Ningal, Nusku, and Sadarnunna in procession back into10 the Eḫulḫul.”
The narrative continues with only minor breaks. The text concludes with an exhortation to observe the worship of Sin.
Final Exhortation (Column III:44´-56´)
[Whoever] you are — whether king, prince [ ] in the land. [Continually stand watch] for Sin, the king [of the gods], the lord of the gods of heaven and earth, his great divinity and reverence [the divinities of heaven and] earth who [ ] dwell in Esagil and Eḫulḫul and pray (to the divinities) in heaven and earth and [ ] the command of Sin and Ishtar who saves [ ] keep your seed safe forever and ever.
REFERENCES
Gadd 1958; Longman 1991:97–103, 225–228.
THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF IDRIMI (1.148)
Tremper Longman III
The text is preserved on a statue of Idrimi, discovered by Sir Leonard Woolley in 1939 during his excavations at Tell Atshana (Alalaḫ). Although found in the debris of Level IB (ca. 1200 BCE), the stature was dated by most scholars back to Level IV (1500 BCE). Presently, the statue is housed at the British Museum.
The short statue (1.07 m) represents the king sitting on a throne (which has since been found). It was fashioned from magnesite and dolorite and covered on the front by an inscription of 104 lines. The last few lines run down Idrimi’s cheek to his mouth, giving the impression that these words were uttered by the figure represented by the statue.
Introduction (lines 1–2)
(1) I am Idrimi, the son of Ilimilimma, the servant of Adad,b Ḫepat, and Ishtar, the lady of Alalaḫ, my ladies.
Personal Narration (lines 3–91)
(3) An act of hostility occurred in Aleppo, my ancestral home, and we fled to the people of Emar, my mother’s relatives, and we lived in Emar. My older brothers lived (there) with me, but none of them were thinking of the matters of which I was thinking.
(10) Thus I (said): “Whoever possesses his father’s house is indeed the foremost heir and whoever [does not] is a servant of the citizens of Emar.” I [to]ok my horse, my chariot, and my groom and I went into the desert. I [en]tered into the midst of Sutean warriors. I spent the night with him (?) in the midst of …
(17b) I set out the next day. I went to the land of Canaan. The town of Ammiya is situated in the land of Canaan. In the town of Ammiya lived citizens of Ḫalab, Mukiš, Niya, and Amae. (When) they saw that I was their lord’s son, they gathered around me. “I have become chief; I have been appointed.”
(27b) I dwelt in the midst of the Ḫapiru warriors for seven years. I released birds and examined sheep entrails. The weather god turned to me in the seventh year and I built ships. Soldiers … I caused them to board the ships and proceed by sea to the land of Mukiš. I landed at Mount Ḫazi. I went up, and my land heard of me. They brought oxen and sheep before me. In one day, like one man, Niya, Amae, Mukiš, and Alalaḫ, my city, turned to me. My allies heard and came before me. When they made a treaty with me, e I established them as my allies.
(42b) Now for seven years Barrattarna, the strong king, the king of the Hurrian troops, was hostile toward me. In the seventh year I sent (a message) to Barrattarna, the king of the Umman-manda, and I informed (him) of the vassal service of my ancestors when my ancestors made a treaty with them. And our words were pleasing to the (former) kings of the Hurrian troops and a strong agreement existed between them. The mighty king heard of the vassal service of our predecessors and the agreement between them, and he had respect for the oath because of the words of the agreement and because of our vassal service. My greeting he accepted and I increased the sacrifices and returned to him his lost estate. I swore a binding oath to him concerning my position as a loyal vassal and I was king in Alalaḫ.
(59) Kings on my right and left rose up against me. And like them … which my ancestors piled up on the ground and I also heaped up on the ground. Thus I put an end to their warfare.
(64) I took troops and went against Ḫatti. I destroyed cities under their sovereignty, g (including) Paššaḫe, Damrut-rēʾî, Ḫulaḫḫan, Zise, Ie, Uluzila, and Zarana, these cities were (under) their treaty protection. The land of Hatti did not assemble and come against me. So I did as I pleased: I took them as captives; I took their goods, their possessions and their valuables and divided (them) among my auxiliaries. I took my brothers and my comrades together with them and returned to Mukiš. I entered my city Alalaḫ with captives.
(79) I constructed a house with the property, goods, possessions, and valuables that I had brought down from Ḫatti. I made my throne like the throne of kings. I made my brothers like the brothers of kings, my sons like their sons and my friends like their friends. I made my inhabitants who were in the midst of my land dwell in better dwellings. Those who (formerly) did not dwell in dwellings, I made them dwell (so). I established my land. I made my cities as they were previously with our fathers. (In accord with?) the signs that the gods of Alalaḫ established and the sacrifices of our father who repeatedly performed them, I repeatedly performed them. I performed them and entrusted them to my son Adad-nirari.
Blessing/Curse Formulas (lines 92–104)
(92) Whoever … this my statue, may his progeny be destroyed. May the heaven-god curse him. May the earth below destroy his progeny. May the gods of heaven and earth measure out his kingdom. Whoever changes it …, may IM the lord of heaven and earth and the great gods extirpate his name, his seed in his land.
(98b) Šarruwa is the scribe, the servant of IM, UTU, Kušuḫ, and ANŠUR. Šarruwa is the scribe who inscribed this statue. May the gods of heaven and earth give him good health, protect him, and favor him. May Shamash, the lord of the upper and lower worlds, the lord of the spirits, give him life.
(102) I reigned as king for 30 years. I have inscribed my labors on a statue. Let one look on them and continually bless me.
REFERENCES
Dietrich and Loretz 1981; Greenstein and Marcus 1976; Kempinski and Naʾaman 1973; Longman 1991:60–66, 216–218; Oller 1977a; 1977b; Sasson 1981; Smith 1949.
THE MARDUK PROPHECY (1.149)
Tremper Longman III
The Marduk Prophecy is the most complete and clearest example of fictional autobiography which ends with a prophecy. R. Borger has provided a copy, transliteration, translation into German, and commentary on the text.
(i 1) O Ḫarḫarnum, Ḫayyašum, Anum, Enlil, Nudim[mud], Ea, ❐Muati❒, Nabium! Let the great gods learn my secrets. After I gird my loins, I will give my speech.
_________________
(i 7) I am Marduk the Great Lord. I am always watching,2 walking watchfully over the mountains, I watch, a watchman roaming the lands. I am he, who in all the lands — from sunrise to sunset — am constantly roaming.
_________________
(i 13) I gave the command that I go to Hatti. I inquired into Ḫatti. I set up the throne of my Anu-power in its midst. I dwelt in its midst for ❐24❒ years. I established [the tr]ade of the citizens of Babylon [in] its midst. I oversaw its […], its goods, and its valuables [in] Sippar, Nippur, [and Baby]lon.
_________________
(i 23) [A king of Babylon] arose and ❐led me❒ f [to] Babylon. […] were in order (?). Fair was the processional way of Ba[bylon.] […] the crown of my Anu-power […] and the statue […] water, winds […]. Three days […] the crown of my Anu-power […] and statue […] to my body [did I …] I went home. [With reference to Babylon, I said:] “Bring [your tribute, O you] la[nds, to Babylon …].”
[gap]
(i 1´) […] Assur was good […] Ekur, Assur […]. [Make its temples shine] like a zalāqu-stone. Abounding […] I gave [it. Monthly, daily, and ye]arly [I blessed it]. I girded [the loins] of the people of Enlil with it. I gave [it] wings like a bird. I filled all [the lands]. I filled […]. I blessed Assur. I gave it fates […]. I gave it strong approval […]. I went home. With reference to Babylon I said: “Bring your tribute, O you lands, to Babylon […].”
_________________
(i 18´) I am Marduk, the great prince. I am Lord of fate and oracle.j Who has undertaken this campaign? As I have gone away, I will come back — I have commanded it. I went to Elam — all the gods went — I commanded it. I myself cut off the nindabû-offering of the temples. Shakkan and Nisaba I caused to go away to heaven. (ii 1) Sirish made the midst of the land sick.6 The corpses of the people block the gates.7 Brother consumes brother. Friend strikes his friend with a weapon. Aristocrats stretch out their hands (to beg) from the commoner. The scepter grows short.8 Evil lies across the land. […] kings diminish the land. Lions block off the way. Dogs go mad and bite people.n ❐As many as❒ they bite do not live; they die. I fulfilled my ❐days❒; I fulfilled my years. Then I carried myself back to my city Babylon and to the Ekursagil. I called all the goddesses together. I commanded: “Bring your tribute, O you lands, to Babylon […].”
_________________
(ii 19) A king of Babylon will arise, and he will renew the house of announcement, the Ekur-sagil. He will draw the plans of heaven and earth in the Ekur-sagil. He will change its height. He will establish tax exemptions for my city Babylon. He will lead me and bring me into my city Babylon and the Ekur-sagil forever. He will renew the ship Matush. He will inlay its rudder with ṣāriru-metal. He will [cover] its walls with pašallu-metal. He will let sailors who serve on it embark on it. They will face each other on the ❐right❒ and left. ❐A king❒ who like (?) the star (?) of the Ekur-sagil […].
[gap, then some fragmentary lines]
(iii 1´) [gap, some fragmentary signs] ❐Ningirsu❒ will rule. The rivers will carry fish. The fields and plains will be full of yield. The grass of winter (will last) to summer. The grass of summer will last to winter. The harvest of the land will thrive.r The marketplace will prosper. He will set evil aright. He will clear up the disturbed. He will illumine evil. The clouds will be continually present. Brother will love his brother. A son will fear his father as if he were a god. Mother […] daughter. The bride will marry. She will fear her husband. He will be compassionate toward the people. The man will regularly pay his taxes. That prince will [rule all] the lands.
_________________
(iii 21´) And I, the god of all, will befriend him. He will destroy Elam. He will destroy its cities. The city and its swamps he will turn away. He causes the great king of Der to arise in his doorframe. He will change its deathly silence. His evil […]. His hand he will seize. He will ever cause him to enter Der and the Ugal-kalama.
[Break]
REFERENCES
Borger 1971; Foster BM 1:304–307; Longman 1991:132–142; 233–235.
THE DYNASTIC PROPHECY (1.150)
Tremper Longman III
The Dynastic Prophecy is the most recent addition to the growing corpus of Akkadian prophecy texts. A. K. Grayson provided an edition of the text in 1975. The text is in a poor state of preservation, not having a single complete line. The Dynastic Prophecy has only one certain exemplar although, as Grayson points out, BM 34903 (= CT 51:122) could possibly be part of the text. The following excerpt excludes the fragmentary introduction which preserves indications of first-person speech. It also omits the fragmentary fourth column. Generically and stylistically, this prophecy bears close resemblance to Daniel 11:2–45.
[Break] seed. […] he sees.
i 1´ […] me. […] me. […] left. […] great. […]
(i 7´) […] a later day. […] will be overthrown. […] will be annihilated. […] Assyria. […] silver (?) and […] will attack and […] Babylon, will attack and […] will be overthrown. […] will lift up and […] will come/go […] will seize […] he will destroy […] will shroud […] he will bring ext[ensive booty] into Babylon. […] he will decorate the Esagil and the Ezida.b […] he will build the palace of Babylon. […] Nippur to Babylon. He will exercise kingship [for x year]s.
_________________
[Break]
(ii 1´) […] he will go up. […] he will overthrow […]. [He will exercise kingship] for three years. Borders and […]. For his people […]. After him his son will [sit] on the throne. […] not […].
_________________
(ii 11´) A ❐rebel❒ prince will arise. [He will establish] the dynasty of Harran. [He will exercise kingship] for seventeen years. He will oppress the land and [he will cancel?] the festival of ❐Esagil❒. [He will build] a fortress in Babylon. He will plot evil against Akkad.
_________________
(ii 17´) A king of Elam will arise. The scepter […]. He will remove him from his throne […]. He will seize the throne and the king who arose from the throne […]. The king of Elam will change his place […]. He will cause him to dwell in another land
[…]. That king will oppress the land and […]. All the lands [will bring] tribute [to him]. During his reign Akkad [will not enjoy] a peaceful abode.4
_________________
(iii 1) […] kings […] of his father […]. [He will exercise kingship] for two years. A eunuch [will murder] that king. Any prince [will arise]. He will attack and [will seize the thron]e. He will [exercise kingship] for five years. […] army of the Hanaeans […] will attack […]. His army […] will plunder and ro[b him]. Afterward [his ar]my will regroup and ❐raise❒ their weapons. Enlil, Shamash, and [Marduk] will go at the side of his ar[my]. He will bring about the overthrow of the Hanaean army. He will [carry] off his extensive booty [and bring] it into his palace. The people who had ex[perienced] misfortune [will enjoy] well-being. The mood of the land […] tax exemption […].5
_________________
[Break]
REFERENCES
Grayson 1975:24–37; Longman 1991:149–152; 239–240.
C. INDIVIDUAL FOCUS
1. JUST SUFFERER COMPOSITIONS
DIALOGUE BETWEEN A MAN AND HIS GOD (1.151)
Benjamin R. Foster
This is the earliest Akkadian treatment of the problem of theodicy, the theme of the just sufferer that reaches a literary climax of sorts in the Biblical Book of Job. The present treatment is known from a single text of Old Babylonian date. Like later ones, it is primarily concerned with suffering in the form of illness, assumed to be punishment for sins known or unknown, and it concludes with restoration to divine favor, i.e., to health. [WWH]
(i) A young man was imploring his god as a friend,
He was constantly supplicating, he was [praying to (?)] him.
His heart was seared, he was sickened with his burden,
His feelings were sombre from misery.
He weakened, fell to the ground, prostrated himself.
His burden had grown too heavy for him, he drew near to weep.
He was moaning like a donkey foal separated (from its mother),
He cried out before his god, his master.
His mouth a wild bull, his clamor two mourners,
[His] lips bear a lament to his lord.
(ii) He recounts the burdens he suffered to his lord,
The young man expounds the misery he is suffering:
“My Lord, I have debated with myself, and in my feelings
[…] of heart: the wrong I did I do not know!
Have I […] a vile forbidden act?
Brother does not de[sp]ise his brother,
Friend is not calumniator of his friend!”
The […] does not […]
[large gap]
(iv) [4 lines lost or fragmentary]
“[From] when I was a child until I grew up, (the days?) have been long, when […]?
How much you have been kind to me, how much I have blasphemed you, I have not forgotten.
In[stead (?)] of good you revealed evil, O my lord,] you made glow …
My bad repute is grown excessive, it … to (my) feet.
It [rains ] blows on my skull (?).
Its […] turned my mouth … to gall.”
[large gap]
(vii) [4 lines lost]
[…] he brought him to earth,
[…] he has anointed him with medicinal oil,
[…] food, and covered his blotch,
He attended him and gladdened his heart,
He ordered the restoration of his good health to him:
(viii) “Your disease is under control, let your heart not be despondent!
The years and days you were filled with misery are over.
Were you not ordered to live,
How could you have lasted the whole of this grievous illness?
You have seen distress, … is (now) held back.
You have borne its massive load to the end.
They have you, (but) the way is open to you,
The path is straight for you, mercy is granted you.
You must never, till the end of time, forget [your] god
Your creator, now that you are favored.”
(ix) “I am your god, your creator, your trust,
My guardians are strong and alert on your behalf.
The field will open [to you] its refuge.
I will see to it that you have long life.
So, without qualms, do you anoint the parched,
Feed the hungry, water the thirsty,
But he who sits there with burning e[yes],
Let him look upon your food, melt, flow down, and dis[solve].
The gate of life and well–being is open to you!
Going away (?), drawing near, coming in, going out: may you be well!”
Make straight his way, open his path:
May your servant’s supplication reach your
heart!
REFERENCES
Text: Nougayrol 1952. Translations and studies: Nougayrol 1952; Lambert 1987; Foster BM 1:75–77, FDD 295–297.
A SUFFERER’S SALVATION (1.152)
Benjamin R. Foster
This treatment of the theme of theodicy bridges the gap between the Old Babylonian ones (in Sumerian and Akkadian) and those of neo-Assyrian date. It comes from Ugarit, where scribal schools adopted and adapted the Mesopotamian curriculum in the Late Bronze Age. It is preserved in a single fragmentary exemplar. [WWH]
[Gap of about 15 lines]
(1´) Evil [portents?] were continually set against me […]
My omens were obscure, they became like […]
The diviner could not reach a ruling concerning me,
The “Judge” would give no sign.
(5´) The omens were confused the oracles mixed up.
Dream interpreters used up the incense, diviners the lambs,
Learned men debated the tablets (about my case),
They could not say when my affliction would run its course.
My family gathered round to bend over me before my time,
(10´) My next of kin stood by ready for the wake.
My brothers were bathed in blood like men possessed,
My sisters sprinkled me with fine (?) oil from the press.
Until the Lord raised my head,
And brought me back to life from the dead,
(15´) Until Marduk raised my head
And brought me back to life from the dead,
I could eat scant bread,
I took for my] drink bilge (?) and salt pools.
[When I lay down], sleep would not overcome me,
(20´) [I would lie aw]ake my whole night through.
My heart […] me, my (!) mind …,
I was wasting away (?) from the sickness I suffered.
[… I] was made most anxious […]
My [te]ars [had to serve] as my sustenance.
(25´) [Lest] Marduk be forgotten,
That Marduk be praised:
Were it not for Marduk, breath had gone from me,
Would not (?) [the mour]ner have cried out ‘alas for him!’
I praise, I praise, what the lord Marduk has done I praise!
(30´) [I praise, I praise], what the angry (personal) god [has done] I praise!
[I praise, I praise], what the (personal) goddess [has done] I praise!
Praise, praise, do not be bashful, but praise!
[He it] is, Marduk, I entreat (?) him, I entreat (?) him,
[He it] was who smote me, then was merciful to me.
(35´) He scuttled (?) me, then moored me,
He dashed me down, then grabbed me (as I fell),
He scattered me wide, then garnered me,
He thrust me away, then gathered me in,
He threw me down, then lifted me high.
(40´) He snatched the jaw of death,
He raised me up from hell.
He smashed my smiter’s weapon,
He wrested the shovel from the digger of my grave.
He opened my shrouded eyes,
(45´) He made my [sp]eech intelligible,
He […] my ears.
(Text breaks off)
REFERENCES
Text: Nougayrol Ugaritica5:435 No. 162. Translations and studies: Nougayrol 1968:265–273; Dietrich 1993; Foster BM 1:324f., FDD 314f.
THE POEM OF THE RIGHTEOUS SUFFERER (1.153)
Benjamin R. Foster
This is the most elaborate treatment of the theme of theodicy. It includes a veritable thesaurus of medical symptoms (Tablet II) and their cure (Tablet III). Because the sufferer protests not so much innocence as ignorance of his sins, his modern designation could well be “pious sufferer” rather than “just sufferer.” He is identified by name in the text (Tablet III, line 43) and was possibly its author. The ancient name of the composition is, as usual, taken from its opening words or incipit.2 When complete, the poem had four tablets (chapters) of presumably 120 lines each, for a total of 480 lines. [WWH]
Tablet I
I will praise the lord of wisdom, solicitous god,
[Fur]ious in the night, growing in the day:
Marduk! lord of wisdom, solicitous god,
[Fur]ious in the night, growing in the day:
Whose anger is like a raging tempest,
But whose breeze is sweet as the breath of morn.
In his fury not to be withstood, his rage the deluge,
Merciful in his feelings, his emotions relenting.
The skies cannot sustain the weight of his hand,
His gentle palm rescues the moribund.
Marduk! The skies cannot sustain the weight of his hand,
His gentle palm rescues the moribund.
He it is, in brunt of whose anger, graves are dug,
At the same moment, raised the fallen from disaster.
He glowers, protective spirits take flight,
He regards, the one whose god forsook him returns.
His severe punishment is harsh and speedy,
He stops short and quickly returns to his natural state.
He is bull–headed in his love of mercy,
Like a cow with a calf, he keeps turning around watchfully.
His scourge is barbed and punctures the body,
His bandages are soothing, they heal the doomed.
He speaks and makes one incur many sins,
On the day of his justice sin and guilt are dispelled.
He is the one who afflicts with demons of shaking-disease,
Through his sacral spell chills and shivering are driven away.
Who … the flood of Adad, the blow of Erra,
Who reconciles the wrathful god [and god]dess,
The lord divines the gods’ inmost thoughts,
(But) no [god] understands his behavior.
Marduk divines the gods’ inmost thoughts,
Which god understands his mind?
As heavy his hand, so compassionate his heart,
As brutal his weapons, so life–sustaining his feelings.
Without his consent, who could cure his blow?
Against his will, who could sin and [escape]?
I, who touched bottom like a fish, will proclaim his anger,
He quickly granted me favor, as if reviving the dead.
I will teach the people that his kindness is nigh,
May his favorable thought take away their [guilt?].
From the day the Lord punished me,
And the warrior Marduk became furious with me,
My own god threw me over (?) and disap[peared],
My goddess broke rank and vanished.
He cut off the benevolent angel who (walked) beside [me],
My protecting spirit was frightened off, to seek out someone else.
My vigor was taken away, my manly appearance became gloomy,
My dignity escaped and lit on the roof.
Terrifying signs beset me:
I was forced out of my house, I wandered outside.
My omens were confused, they were contradictory every day,
The prognostication of diviner and dream interpreter could not explain what I was undergoing.
What was said in the street portended ill for me,
When I lay down at night, my dream was terrifying.
The king, incarnation of the gods, sun of his peoples,
His heart hardened against me and appeasing him was impossible.
Courtiers were plotting hostile action against me,
They gathered themselves to instigate base deeds:
If the first “I will make him end his life”
Says the second “I ousted (him) from his command!”
So likewise the third “I will get my hands on his post!”
“I’ll come into property!” vows the fourth
As the fifth subverts the mind of fifty,
Sixth and seventh follow on his heels!
The clique of seven have massed their forces,
Merciless as fiends, the likeness to demons.
So one is their body, (but seven) their mouths.
Their hearts fulminate against me, ablaze like fire.
Slander and lies they try to lend credence against me.
My eloquent mouth they checked, as with reins,
My lips, which used to discourse, became those of a deaf man.
My resounding call struck dumb,
My proud head bent earthward,
My stout heart turned feeble for terror,
My broad breast brushed aside by a novice,
My far–reaching arms pinned by my clothing,
I, who walked proudly, learned slinking,
I, so grand, became servile.
To my vast family I became a loner,
As I went through the streets, I was pointed at,
I would enter the palace, eyes would squint at me,
My city was glowering at me like an enemy,
Belligerent and hostile would seem my land!
My brother became my foe,
My friend became a malignant demon,
My comrade would denounce me savagely,
My colleague kept the taint to (?) his weapons for bloodshed,
My best friend made my life an aspersion.
My slave cursed me openly in the assembly (of gentlefolk),
My slave girl defamed me before the rabble.
An acquaintance would see me and make himself scarce,
My family disowned me.
A pit awaited anyone speaking well of me,
While he who was uttering defamation of me forged ahead.
One who relayed base things about me had a god for his help,
For the one who said “What a pity about him!” death came early,
The one of no help, his life became charmed,
I had no one to go at my side, nor saw I a champion.
They parceled my possessions among the riffraff,
The sources of my watercourses they blocked with muck,
They chased the harvest song from my fields,
They left my community deathly still, like that of a (ravaged) foe.
They let another assume my duties,
And appointed an outsider to my prerogatives.
By day sighing, by night lamentation,
Monthly, trepidation, despair the year.
I moaned like a dove all my days,
Like a singer, I moan out my dirge.
My eyes endure (?) constant crying,
My cheeks scald from tears, as if eroded (?).
My face is darkened from the apprehensions of my heart,
Terror and panic have jaundiced my face.
The wellsprings of my heart quaked for unremitting anxiety,
I was changeable (?) as a flickering fire,
Prayer was disorder, like an exploding flame,
My entreaty was like the fracas of a brawl.
My sweet-lipped discourse was murky, obscure,
When I turned a biting comment, my gambit was stifled.
“Surely in daylight good will come upon me!
The new moon will appear, the sun will shine!”
Tablet II
One whole year to the next! The (normal) time passed.
As I turned around, it was more and more terrible.
My ill luck was on the increase, I could find no good fortune.
I called to my god, he did not show his face,
I prayed to my goddess, she did not raise her head.
The diviner with his inspection did not get to the bottom of it,
Nor did the dream interpreter with his incense clear up my case,
I beseeched a dream spirit, but it did not enlighten me,
The exorcist with his ritual did not appease divine wrath.
What bizarre actions everywhere!
I looked behind: persecution, harrassment!
Like one who had not made libations to his god,
Nor invoked his goddess with a food offering,
Who was not wont to prostrate, nor seen to bow down,
From whose mouth supplication and prayer were wanting,
Who skipped holy days, despised festivals,
Who was neglectful, omitted the gods’ rites,
Who had not taught his people reverence and worship,
Who did not invoke his god, but ate his food offering,
Who snubbed his goddess, brought (her) no flour offering,
Like one possessed (?), who forgot his lord,
Who casually swore a solemn oath by his god:
I, indeed, seemed (such a one)!
I, for my part, was mindful of supplication and prayer,
Prayer to me was the natural recourse, sacrifice my rule.
The day for reverencing the gods was a source of satisfaction to me,
The goddess’s procession day was my profit and return.
Praying for the king, that was my joy,
His sennet was as if for (my own) good omen.
I instructed my land to observe the god’s rites,
The goddess’s name did I drill my people to esteem.
I made my praises of the king like a god’s,
And taught the populace reverence for the palace.
I wish I knew that these things were pleasing to a god!
What seems good to one’s self could be an offense to a god,
What in one’s own heart seems abominable could be good to one’s god!
Who could learn the reasoning of the gods in heaven?
Who could grasp the intentions of the gods of the depths?
Where might human beings have learned the way of a god? d
He who lived by (his) brawn died in confinement.
Suddenly one is downcast, in a trice full of cheer,
One moment he sings in exaltation,
In a trice he groans like a professional mourner.
People’s motivations change in a twinkling!
Starving, they become like corpses,
Full, they would rival their gods.
In good times, they speak of scaling heaven,
When it goes badly, they complain of going down to hell.
I have ponde[red] these things; I have made no sense of them.
But as for me, in despair, a whirlwind is driving (?) me!
Debilitating disease is let loose upon me:
An evil vapor has blown against me [from the] ends of the earth,
Head pain has surged up upon me from the breast of hell,
A malignant spectre has come forth from its hidden depth,
A relentless [ghost] came out of its dwelling place.
[A she–demon came] down from the mountain,
Ague set forth [with the] flood [and sea?],
Debility broke through the ground with the plants.
[They assembled] their host, together they came upon me:
[They struck my he]ad, they closed around my pate,
[My features] were gloomy, my eyes ran a flood,
They wrenched my muscles, made my neck limp,
They thwacked [my chest], pounded (?) my breast,
They affected my flesh, threw (me) into convulsions,
They kindled a fire in my epigastrium,
They churned up my bowels, they tw[isted] my entrails (?),
Coughing and hacking infected my lungs,
They infected (?) my limbs, made my flesh pasty,
My lofty stature they toppled like a wall,
My robust figure they flattened like a bulrush,
I was dropped like a dried fig, I was tossed on my face.
A demon has clothed himself in my body for a garment,
Drowsiness smothers me like a net,
My eyes stare, they cannot see,
My ears prick up, they cannot hear.
Numbness has spread over my whole body,
Paralysis has fallen upon my flesh.
Stiffness has seized my arms,
Debility has fallen upon my loins,
My feet forgot how to move.
[A stroke] has overcome me, I choke like one fallen,
Signs of death have shrouded my face!
[If someone th]inks of me, I can’t respond to the inquirer,
“[Ala]s!” they weep, I have lost consciousness.
A snare is laid on my mouth,
And a bolt bars my lips.
My way in is barred, my point of slaking blocked,
My hunger is chronic, my gullet is constricted.
If it be of grain, I choke it down like stink weed,
Beer, the sustenance of mankind, is sickening to me.
Indeed, the malady drags on!
For lack of food my features are unrecognizable,
My flesh is waste, my blood has run dry,
My bones are loose, covered (only) with skin,
My tissues are inflamed, afflicted with gangrene (?).
I took to bed, confined, going out was exhaustion,
My house turned into my prison.
My flesh was a shackle, my arms being useless,
My person was a fetter, my feet having given way.
My afflictions were grievous, the blow was severe!
(ii 100) A scourge full of barbs thrashed me,
A crop lacerated me, cruel with thorns.
All day long tormentor would torment [me],
Nor at night would he let me breathe freely a moment.
From writhing, my joints were separated,
My limbs were splayed and thrust apart.
I spent the night in my dung like an ox,
I wallowed in my excrement like a sheep.
The exorcist recoiled from my symptoms,
While my omens have perplexed the diviner.
The exorcist did not clarify the nature of my complaint,
While the diviner put no time limit on my illness.
No god came to the rescue, nor lent me a hand,
No goddess took pity on me, nor went at my side.
My grave was open, my funerary goods ready,
Before I had died, lamentation for me was done.
All my country said, “How wretched he was!”
When my ill–wisher heard, his face lit up,
When the tidings reached her, my ill–wisher, her mood became radiant.
The day grew dim for my whole family,
For those who knew me, their sun grew dark.
Tablet III
Heavy was his hand upon me, I could not bear it!
Dread of him was oppressive, it [ me].
His fierce [pun]ishment [ ], the deluge,
His stride was …, it … [ ].
[Ha]rsh, severe illness does not … [ ] my person,
I lost sight of [aler]tness, [ ] make my mind stray.
I gro[an] day and night alike,
Dreaming and waking [I am] equally wretched.
A remarkable young man of extraordinary physique,
Magnificent in body, clothed in new garments,
Because I was only half awake, his features lacked form.
He was clad in splendor, robed in dread —
He came in upon me, he stood over me.
[When I saw him, my] flesh grew numb.
[ ] “The Lady (?) has sent [me],
[ ].”
[ ] I tried to tell [my people],
“[ ] sent [ for me].”
They were silent and did not [speak],
They heard me [in silence and did not answer].
A second time [I saw a dream].
In the dream I saw [at night],
A remarkable purifier [ ],
Holding in his hand a tamarisk rod of purification,
“Laluralimma, resident of Nippur,
Has sent me to cleanse you.”
He was carrying water, he po[ured it] over me,
He pronounced the resuscitating incantation, he massaged [my] bo[dy].
A third time I saw a dream.
In my dream I saw at night:
A remarkable young woman of shining countenance,
Clothed like a person (?), being li[ke] a god,
A queen among peoples [ ],
She entered upon me and [sat down] … [ ]
She ordered my deliverance [ ]
“Fear not!” she said, I [will ]
Whatever one sees (?) of a dream [ ].”
She ordered my deliverance, “Most wre[tched] indeed is he,
Whoever he might be, the one who saw the vision at niqht.”
In the dream (was) Ur–Nindinugga, a Babylonian (?)
A bearded young man wearing a tiara,
He was an exorcist, carrying a tablet,
“Marduk has sent me!
To Shubshi–meshre–Shakkan I have brought a sw[athe],
From his pure hands I have brought a sw[athe].”
He has entru[sted] me into the hands of my ministrant.
[In] waking hours he sent a message,
He reve[aled] his favorable sign to my people.
I was awake in my sickness, a (healing) serpent slithered by.
My illness was quickly over, [my fetters] were broken.
After my lord’s heart had quiet[ed],
(And) the feelings of merciful Marduk were ap[peased],
[And he had] accepted my prayers [ ],
His sweet [relen]ting [ ],
[He ordered] my deliverance!: “He is g[reatly trie]d!”
[ ] to extol [ ]
[ ] to worship and [ ]
[ ] my guilt [ ]
[ ] my iniquity [ ]
[ ] my transgression [ ]
He made the wind bear away my offenses.
[The exact placement of the following lines is unknown.]
[He applied] to me his spell which binds [debilitating disease],
[He drove] back the evil vapor to the ends of the earth,
He bore off [the head pain] to the breast of hell,
[He sent] down the malignant spectre to its hidden depth,
The relentless ghost he returned [to] its dwelling,
He overthrew the she–demon, sending if off to a mountain,
He replaced the ague in flood and sea.
He eradicated debility like a plant,
Uneasy sleep, excessive drowsiness,
He dissipated like smoke filling the sky.
The turning towards people (?) with “woe!” and “alas!” he drove away like a cloud, earth … [ ]
The tenacious disease in the head, which was [heavy] as a [mill]stone,
He raised like dew of night, he removed it from me.
My beclouded eyes, which were wrapped in the shroud of death,
He drove (the cloud) a thousand leagues away, he brightened [my] vision,
My ears, which were stopped and clogged like a deaf man’s,
He removed their blockage, he opened my hearing.
My nose, whose [bre]athing was choked by symptoms of fever,
He soothed its affliction so I could breathe [freely].
My babbling lips, which had taken on a h[ard crust?],
He wiped away their distress (?) and und[id] their deformation.
My mouth, which was muffled, so that proper speech was diffi[cult],
He scoured like copper and r[emoved] its filth.
My teeth, which were clenched and locked together firmly,
[He op]ened their fastening, fre[ed?] the jaws (?).
My tongue, which was tied and [could] not converse,
[He] wiped off its coating and [its] speech became fluent (?).
My windpipe, which was tight and choking, as though on a gobbet,
He made well and let it si[ng] its songs like a flute.
My [gul]let, which was swollen so it could not take [food],
Its swelling went down and he opened its blockage.
My [ ], which [ ]
[ ] above [ ]
[ which] was darkened like [ ]
[three damaged lines, then gap]
[The following lines are known only from the ancient commentary, but must go in the gap here, in sequence but not necessarily seriatim.]
(a) My intestine, which was ever empty for want, and was coiled (tight) like basketry,
(b) Accepts nourishment, holds drink.
(c) My neck, which was limp and twisted at the base,
(d) He shored up, a hillock, he planted upright like a tree (?).
(e) He made my body that of a perfect athlete.
(f) He pared my nails as if to drive out a “vengeance.”
(g) He drove out their illness and made their upper parts well.
(h) My knees, which were tied and b[ound] like a … bird’s
(i) The shape of my bo[d]y [he made] remarkable (?)
(j) He wiped off the grime, he cleansed its filth
(k) My gloomy mien began to glow (=120?)
Tablet IV (Episode A)
The Lord [ ] me,
The Lord took hold of me,
The Lord set me on my feet,
The Lord revived me,
He rescued me [from the p]it,
He summoned me [from destruc]tion,
[ ] he pulled me from the river of death.
[ ] he took my hand.
[He who] smote me,
Marduk, he restored me!
He smote the hand of my smiter,
It was Marduk who made him drop his weapon.
[He ] the attack of my foe,
It was Marduk who [ ]
[Two fragmentary lines, then gap. Insert here, perhaps, two lines known only from the ancient commentary]:
(l) At the place of the river ordeal, where people’s fates are decided,
(m) I was struck on the forehead, my slave mark removed.
(Fragment B)
[ ] which in my prayers [ ]
[With] prostration and supplication [ ] to Esagila [ ]
[I who went] down to the grave have returned to the “Gate of [Sunrise].”
[In the] “Gate of Prosperity” prosperity was [given me].
[In the] “Gate of the Guardian Spirit” a guardian spirit [drew nigh to me].
[In the] “Gate of Well–being” I beheld well–being.
In the “Gate of Life” I was granted life.
In the “Gate of Sunrise” I was reckoned among the living.
In the “Gate of Splendid Wonderment” my signs were plain to see.
In the “Gate of Release from Guilt”
I was released from my bond.
In the “Gate of Praise (?)” my mouth made inquiry.
In the “Gate of Release from Sighing” my sighs were released.
In the “Gate of Pure Water” I was sprinkled with purifying water.
In the “Gate of Conciliation” I appeared with Marduk,
In the “Gate of Joy” I kissed the foot of Sarpanitum.
I was consistent in supplication and prayer before them,
I placed fragrant incense before them,
An offering, a gift, sundry donations I presented,
Many fatted oxen I slaughtered, butchered many [sheep?].
Honey–sweet beer and pure wine I repeatedly libated.
The protecting genius, the guardian spirit, divine attendants of the fabric of Esagila,
I made their feelings glow with libation,
I made them exultant [with] lavish [meals].
[To the threshhold, the bolt] socket, the bolt, the doors
[I offered] oil, butterfat, and choicest grain.
[ ] the rites of the temple.
[large gap]
[insert here?]
(o) I proceeded along Kunush–kadru Street in a state of redemption.
(p) He who has done wrong by Esagil, let him learn from me.
(q) It was Marduk who put a muzzle on the mouth of the lion that was devouring me.
(r) Marduk took away the sling of my pursuer and deflected his slingstone.
(Fragment C)
[ ] golden grain [ ]
[He?] anointed himself with sweet cedar perfume, upon him [ ]
A feast for the Babylonian (s?) [ ]
His tomb he (?) had made [was set up] for a feast!
The Babylonians saw how [Marduk] can restore to life,
And all mouths proclaimed [his] greatness,
“Who (would have) said he would see his sun?
Who (would have) imagined that he would pass through his street?
Who but Marduk revived him as was dying?
Besides Sarpanitum, which goddess bestowed his breath of life?
Marduk can restore to life from the grave,
Sarpanitum knows how to rescue from annihilation.
Wherever earth is founded, heavens are stretched wide,
Wherever sun shines, fire blazes,
Wherever water runs, wind blows,
Those whose bits of clay Aruru pinched off (to form them),
Those endowed with life, who walk upright,
[Tee]ming mankind, as many as they be, give praise to Marduk!
[ ] those who can speak,
[ ] may he rule all the peoples
[ ] shepherd of all habi[tations]
[ ] floods from the deep
[ ] the gods [ ]
[ ] the extent of heaven and netherworld,
[ ]
[ ] was getting darker and darker for him.”
REFERENCES
Text: Lambert BWL pls. 1–18 and duplicates. Translations and studies; Lambert BWL 21–62; ANET 596–600; Foster BM 1:306–323, FDD 298–313.
THE BABYLONIAN THEODICY (1.154)
Benjamin R. Foster
Formally, this classic statement of the theme of theodicy comes closest to the biblical book of Job, for it is cast in the form of a dialogue, albeit the sufferer has only one “friend” to put up with as interlocutor, and that friend is unnamed. A further formal parallel to biblical poetry in general is provided by the strophic structure which, like Ps. 119, features successive stanzas of equal length whose initial signs spell out a message of their own. In the biblical case, such “acrostics” are exclusively alphabetic, i.e., they list the letters of the alphabet in their traditional order.2 Babylonian acrostics cannot be alphabetic, since Mesopotamian cuneiform is involved. The present acrostic reveals (or conceals) the name of the author and his protestation of religious and political correctness — as if to head off any criticism of the rather daring views expressed in his poem. [WWH]
I. Sufferer
O sage, […], come, [let] me speak to you,
[…], let me recount to you,
[…],
[I …], who have suffered greatly, let me always praise you,
Where is one whose reflective capacity is as great as yours?
Who is he whose knowledge could rival yours?
Wh[ere] is the counsellor to whom I can tell of woe?
I am without recourse, heartache has come upon me.
I was the youngest child when fate claimed (my) father,
My mother who bore me departed to the land of no return,
My father and mother left me, and with no one my guardian!
II. Friend
Considerate friend, what you tell is a sorrowful tale,
My dear friend, you have let your mind harbor ill.
You make your estimable discretion feeble–minded,
You alter your bright expression to a scowl.
Of course our fathers pay passage to go death’s way,
I too will cross the river of the dead, as is commanded from of old.
When you survey teeming mankind all together,
The poor man’s son advanced, someone helped him get rich,
Who did favors for the sleek and wealthy?
He who looks to his god has a protector,
The humble man who reveres his goddess will garner wealth.
III. Sufferer
My friend, your mind is a wellspring of depth unplumbed,
The upsurging swell of the ocean that brooks no inadequacy.
To you, then, let me pose a question, learn [what I would say].
Hearken to me but for a moment, hear my declaration.
My body is shrouded, craving wears me do[wn],
My assets have vanished, my res[ouces?] dwindled.
My energies have turned feeble, my prosperity is at a standstill,
Moaning and woe have clouded [my] features.
The grain of my mead is nowhere near satisfying [me],
Beer, the sustenance of mankind, is far from being enough.
Can a happy life be a certainty? I wish I knew how that might come about!
IV. Friend
My well–thought–out speech is the ulti[mate] in good advice,
But you [make?] your well–ordered insight [sound] like babble.
You force [your …] to be [sca]tter–brained, irrational,
You render your choicest offerings without conviction.
As to your [ever]lasting, unremitting desire […],
The [fore]most protection […] in prayer:
The reconciled goddess returns to […]
The re[conciled gods] will take pity on the fool (?), the wrong–doer.
Seek constantly after the [rites?] of justice.
Your mighty […] will surely show kindness,
[…] … will surely grant mercy.
V. Sufferer
I bow down before you, my [comrade], I apprehend your w[isdom],
[…] what you say.
Come, let me [tell you],
The on[ager], the wild ass, that had its fill of […],
Did it pay attention [to] ca[rry out?] a god’s intentions?
The savage lion that devoured the choicest meat,
Did it bring its offerings to appease a goddess’ anger?
The parvenu who multiplies his wealth,
Did he weigh out precious gold to the mother goddess for a family?
[Have I] withheld my offerings? I prayed to my god,
[I] said the blessing over my goddess, my speech […].
VI. Friend
O date palm, wealth–giving tree, my precious brother,
Perfect in all wisdom, O gem of wis[dom],
You are a mere child, the purpose of the gods is remote as the netherworld.
Consider that magnificent wild ass on the [plain],
The arrow will gash that headstrong trampler of the leas!
Come, look at that lion you called to mind, the enemy of livestock,
For the atrocity that lion committed, the pit yawns for him.
The well–heeled parvenu who treasured up possessions,
The king will put him to the flames before his time.
Would you wish to go the way these have gone?
Seek after the lasting reward of (your) god.
VII. Sufferer
Your reasoning is a cool breeze, a breath of fresh air for mankind,
Most particular friend, your advice is e[xcellent].
Let me [put] but one matter before you:
Those who seek not after a god can go the road of favor,
Those who pray to a goddess have grown poor and destitute.
Indeed, in my youth I tried to find out the will of (my) god,
With prayer and supplication I besought my goddess.
I bore a yoke of profitless servitude:
(My) god decreed (for me) poverty instead of wealth.
A cripple rises above me, a fool is ahead of me,
Rogues are in the ascendant, I am demoted.
VIII. Friend
O just, knowledgeable one, your logic is perverse,
You have cast off justice, you have scorned divine design.
In your emotional state you have an urge to disregard divine ordinances,
[…] the sound rules of your goddess.
The strategy of a god is [as remote as] innermost heaven,
The command of a goddess cannot be dr[awn out].
Teeming humanity well understands trouble,
[fragmentary lines, then large gap]
XIII. Sufferer
I will forsake home […]
I will crave no property […]
I will ignore (my) god’s regulations, [I will] trample on his rites.
I will slaughter a calf, I will […] the food,
I will go on the road, I will learn my way around distant places.
I will open a well, I will let loose a fl[ood?],
I will roam about the far outdoors like a bandit.
I will stave off hunger by forcing entry into one house after another,
I will prowl the streets, casting about, ravenous.
Like a beggar I will […] inside […],
Good fortune lies afar off […].
XIV. Friend
My friend, [you have] resolved [upon …]
The transactions of mankind, which you had no urge to […],
[…] are in your mind,
Your discretion has forsaken [you …]
[fragmentary lines]
XV. Sufferer
[four lines lost]
Daughter says [unjust words] to her mother,
The fowler who casts [his net] is fallen (into it):
All in all, which one [will find] profit?
Many are the wild creatures that […],
Which among them has gotten […]?
Shall I seek son and daughter […]?
Shall I not leave behind what I find […]?
XVI. Friend
O modest, submissive one, who […] all […],
Your mind is always receptive, most precious one […],
[fragmentary lines, then gap]
XVII. Sufferer
The son of a king is clad [in rags?],
The son of the destitute and naked is dressed in [fine raiment?].
The maltster [can pay in] finest gold,
While he who counted red gold bears a [debt?].
He who made do with vegetables [sates himself] at a princely banquet,
While the son of the eminent and wealthy (has only) carob to eat.
The man of substance is fallen, [his income] is removed.
[fragmentary lines, gap]
XX. Friend
You have let your subtle mind wander,
[…] you have overthrown wisdom.
You have spurned propriety, you have besmirched (every) code.
Far will be the workman’s basket from him who …
[…] is established as a person of importance,
[…] he is called a scholar,
He is well served, he gets what he wants.
Follow in the way of a god, observe his rites,
[…] be ready for good fortune!
[gap]
XXII. Friend
As for the rascal whose good will you wanted,
The … of his feet will soon disappear.
The godless swindler who acquires wealth,
A deadly weapon is in pursuit of him.
Unless you serve the will of a god, what will be your profit?
He who bears a god’s yoke shall never want for food, though it may be meager.
Seek after the favorable breeze of the gods,
What you lost for a year you will recoup in a moment.
XXIII. Sufferer
I have looked around in society, indications are the contrary:
God does not block the progress of a demon.
A father hauls a boat up a channel,
While his first–born sprawls in bed.
The eldest son makes his way like a lion,
The second son is content to drive a donkey.
The heir struts the street like a peddler,
The younger son makes provision for the destitute.
What has it profited me that I knelt before my god?
It is I who must (now) bow before my inferior!
The riffraff despise me as much as the rich and proud.
XXIV. Friend
Adept scholar, master of erudition,
You blaspheme in the anguish of your thoughts.
Divine purpose is as remote as innermost heaven,
It is too difficult to understand, people cannot understand it.
Among all creatures the birth goddess formed,
Why should offspring be completely unmatched (?)?
The cow’s first calf is inferior,
Her subsequent offspring is twice as big.
The first child is born a weakling,
The second is called a capable warrior.
Even if one (tries to) apprehend divine intention, people cannot understand it.
XXV. Sufferer
Pay attention, my friend, learn my (next) parry,
Consider the well–chosen diction of my speech.
They extol the words of an important man who is accomplished in murder,
They denigrate the powerless who has committed no crime.
They esteem truthful the wicked to whom tr[uth] is abhorrent,
They reject the truthful man who he[eds] the will of god.
They fill the oppressor’s st[rongroom] with refined gold,
They empty the beggar’s larder of [his] provisions.
They shore up the tyrant whose all is crime,
They ruin the weak, they oppress the powerless.
And as for me, without means, a parvenu harasses me.
XXVI. Friend
Enlil, king of the gods, who created teeming mankind,
Majestic Ea, who pinched off their clay,
The queen who fashioned them, mistress Mami,
Gave twisted words to the human race,
They endowed them in perpetuity with lies and falsehood.
Solemnly they speak well of a rich man,
“He’s the king,” they say, “he has much wealth.”
They malign a poor man as a thief,
They lavish mischief upon him, they conspire to kill him.
They make him suffer every evil because he has no wherewithal (?).
They bring him to a horrible end, they snuff him out like an ember.
XXVII. Sufferer
You are sympathetic, my friend, be considerate of (my) misfortune.
Help me, see (my) distress, you should be cognizant of it.
Though I am humble, learned, suppliant,
I have not seen help or succor for an instant.
I would pass unobtrusively through the streets of my city,
My voice was not raised, I kept my speaking low.
I did not hold my head high, I would look at the ground.
I was not given to servile praise among my associates.
May the god who has cast me off grant help,
May the goddess who has [forsaken me] take pity,
The shepherd Shamash will past[ure] people as a god should.
REFERENCES
Text: Lambert BWL pls. 19–26. Translations and studies: Lambert BWL 63–89; ANET 438–440, 601–604; Foster BM 2:790–798, FDD 316–323.
2. DIALOGUE
DIALOGUE OF PESSIMISM OR THE OBLIGING SLAVE (1.155)
Alasdair Livingstone
(1) [“Slave, oblige me again!”] “Here, master! Here!”
[“Get a move on and get ready] the chariot and harness up so I can go driving to the palace!”
[“Go driving, master, go driving!] You’ll achieve your goal!”
[“…] will show you preference!”
(5) [“No, slave,] I will not go driving to the palace!”
[“Do not go driving, master, do not go driving!”]
[The palace n]otable will send you off on his business
and will make you take a [route] you don’t know;
day and night he’ll expose you to miseries.”
_________________
(10) “Slave, [oblige] me [again]! “Here, master! Here!”
“Get a move on and get ready for me some hand ablution water and give it to me
so I can sup!”
“Sup, master, sup! Having supper regularly makes one content.
[Even …]. the supper of his god; Shamash approves of clean hands.”
“No [slave], I definitely won’t sup.”
(15) “Don’t sup, master, don’t sup!
To be hungry, or to eat, to be thirsty, or to drink, are but human.”
_________________
“Slave, oblige me again!” “Here, master! Here!”
“Get a move on and get ready the chariot and harness it up so I can drive off to the steppe!”
“Drive off master, drive off! The roving man has a full stomach.
(20) Even a prowling dog has a bone to crunch,
and the roving raven finds a place to nest.
The roaming wild ass finds its fill in the steppe.”
“No, slave I will definitely not [drive off] to the steppe.”
“Do not drive off, master, do not drive off!
(25) The roving man may become insane,
the prowling dog may break its teeth,
as for the dwelling of the raven, it is but in the [crack] of a wall,
while the roaming wild ass has its resting
place in the wastes.”
_________________
“Slave, oblige me again!” [“Here, master! Here!”]
(30) “I want to build a [house] and found a family!”
“Found one, [master], found one. [The man who builds] a house […].
(Lines 32 to 38 contain textual disorder and substantial lacunae)
_________________
“Slave, oblige me again!” “Here, master! Here!”
(40) “See here, I’ll go in for skulduggery!” “So go in for it, master, go in for it!
If you don’t go in for skulduggery, what will be your finery?
Who will just give you handouts so you can fill your stomach?”
“No, slave, I will definitely not go in for skulduggery!”
“The man who goes in for skulduggery is killed, flayed,
(45) blinded, arrested or thrown in jail.”
_________________
“Slave, oblige me again!” “Here, master! Here!”
“I’m going to fall in love with a woman!” “Fall in love, master, fall in love!
The man who falls in love with a woman forgets depression and melancholy.”
“No way, slave, I will not fall in love with a woman.”
(50) “Don’t fall in love, master, don’t fall in love.
Woman is a well, she’s a well, a pit, a hole.
Woman is a whetted iron dagger that cuts the throat of a fine man.”
_________________
“Slave, oblige me again!” “Here, master! Here!”
“Get a move on and get water for my hands and give it to me
(55) so that I can make a sacrifice to my personal god!” “Make a sacrifice, master, make a sacrifice!
A man who makes a sacrifice to his personal god will be content.
On trust he is making loan upon loan.”
“No way, slave. I will not make a sacrifice to my personal god.”
“Don’t do it, master, don’t do it.
(60) Can you teach your personal god to run after you like a dog?
He’ll just demand of you rites, a votive statue,
and many other things.”
_________________
“Slave, oblige me again!” “Here, master! Here!”
“I will act as a guarantor!” “So act as one, master, act as one!
The man who acts as a guarantor: his grain remains his grain but his
return is manifold.”
(65) “No way, slave, I will not act as a guarantor.”
“Do not make loans, master, do not make loans.
The giving is like love-making, but the return is like childbirth.
They will eat your grain while cursing you again and again
and then make you do without the interest on your grain.”
_________________
(70) “Slave, oblige me again!” “Here, master! Here!”
“I will carry out a good service for my country!” “So carry one out, master, carry one out.
The man who carries out a good service for his country,
his deeds are placed in the carrying basket of Marduk.”
“No way, slave, I will not carry out a good service for my country.”
(75) “Don’t carry one out, master, don’t carry one out.
Go up onto the ancient ruin heaps and walk about!
Search out the skulls of high and low!
Which was a crook and which did good services?”
_________________
“Slave, oblige me again!” “Here, master! Here!”
(80) “Now then, what is good?”
“What’s good is to break my neck and your neck
and to be thrown in the river.
Who is tall enough to ascend to the heavens?
Who is broad enough to encompass the earth?”
(85) “No way, slave, I’ll kill you and send you in advance.”
“But my master wouldn’t even survive me three days!”
_________________
REFERENCES
BWL 139–149; ANET 600–601; TUAT 3/1:157–163.
3. HUMOROUS TEXTS
“AT THE CLEANERS” (1.156)
Alasdair Livingstone
(1) “Come on fuller, let me give you instructions! Wash my garment!
Don’t ignore my instructions and
don’t carry out your own methods!
You should set the hem and the lining in place;
(5) you should stitch the front to the inside;
you should pick the thread of the border;
you should soak the thin part in beer;
you should carry out a filtering operation with a sieve;
you should loosen the hem of the lining;
(10) you should … it in clean water;
you should purify it as if it were a fine cloth.
To the part … like …
to the edge bit …
You should mix alkali and gypsum …
(15) You should slap it on a washing-board.
You should stir it in a beer jug and you should …
Yes indeed, you should stretch it over a …, you … it and you should comb it out.
You should tap it with a wand of hardwood.
You should … the fleecy part which has become flattened nap.
(20) The web, the work with the needle …
You should squeeze the hem … and let it cool down.
In the early evening, when the web has not yet
become dry, you should take it and place it in a receptacle, in a container.
(25) Then let it cool down! Carry this out and I’ll reward you right away!
You will bring it to the house and ten liters of grain will be poured in your lap!”
The fuller answers him: “By Ea, Lord of Wisdom, who keeps me alive!
Cut it out! Not me. As to all you say, it’s only the guys who lend me money and collect my taxes
that have a nerve like you! And
(30) there’s no-one whose hand can achieve the work.
What you instructed me I cannot even repeat, speak,
say, or reiterate.
Come, somewhere upstream from the city, at the outskirts of the city,
let me show you a washing place. And then
(35) carry out yourself the great exertions which are on you hands!
But dinnertime mustn’t go by! Go on in and
undo all the many threads done by the fuller!
If you don’t compose yourself
there’s no fuller who’ll pay attention to you!
(40) They’ll have contempt for you, you’ll get
all heated up and
give yourself a fit!”
_________________
REFERENCES
Gadd 1963:181–188; Livingstone 1988; George 1993:73 (collations after the tablet had been baked and cleaned); Foster 1992.
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SUMERIAN CANONICAL COMPOSITIONS
A. DIVINE FOCUS
1. MYTHS
THE SONG OF THE HOE (1.157)
Gertrud Farber
The ancient scribe seemingly had a humorous purpose in mind when composing this text. It should probably be categorized as a satirical school text composed for use in the Edubba (= school) and for other learned people. The composition has no coherent topic or theme. The thread winding through the whole text is the syllable /al/ which is a Sumerian logogram meaning hoe but which also occurs as part of other words or as a grammatical element. Thus the text contains sections in which the hoe is the main topic: a mythological section on creation, a hymnical praise of the hoe, or the description of the hoe’s use in agriculture or when building temples. These sections are only loosely connected as if they had been examples of scholastic exercises. In addition to that, however, /al/ has been abstracted as a syllable and is used throughout the composition in quite imaginative alliterations and puns, some of which still resist all our attempts of understanding. Such poetic devices unfortunately get completely lost when translated literally. The following translation will try therefore to mark them by adding short explanations in parentheses or in the notes, and by marking all words which contain the syllable /al/ (or sometimes /ar/) with an asterisk.
The text has 109 lines of which 92 have been included here. (…) marks abridged text. So far this text has been preserved in 70 copies from Nippur, 6 from Ur and 13 from other cities. About 12 originally contained the complete composition; all others are excerpts. All sources are from the Old Babylonian period. The exact date of the origin of the text is not known. But the presence of the goddess Nininsina points to the Isin period and the clearly astral aspect of the god Shulpaea3 does not allow an earlier date.
Creation of the World (lines 1–7)
Not only did the lord who never *changes his promises for the future make the world appear in its correct form,
— Enlil who will make the seed of *mankind rise from the earth —
not only did he hasten to separate heaven from earth,
(…) and earth from heaven,
but, in order to make it possible for humans to grow “where the flesh sprouts,”
he first affixed the axis of the world in Duranki.
Introducing the Hoe (lines 8–17)
He did this with the help of the *hoe and (as a result) daylight *broke forth.
By distributing the shares of duty he established daily tasks
and for the *hoe and the (carrying) basket even wages were *established.
Then Enlil praised his *hoe:
his *hoe, wrought in gold, with a top inlaid with lapis lazuli,
his *hoe whose blade was tied (to the handle) with a string, which was adorned with silver and gold,
whose blade was like a battering ram standing up against a *wall.
The lord evaluated the *hoe. (…)
Creation of Mankind (lines 18–27)
Here, “where the flesh sprouts,” he set this very *hoe to work:
he had it place the first model of mankind in the brickmold.
And (according to this model) his *people started to break through the soil towards Enlil,
and he looked approvingly at his “blackheaded people.”
Now the Anuna–gods stepped up to him: (…)
they wanted to demand the “blackheaded people” from him.
The lady who (once upon a time) had given birth to the ruler, who had given birth to the king,
Ninmena now *set the human reproduction going.
Assignment of Tasks to the Human Race (lines 28–34)
The foremost of heaven and earth, the lord Nunamnir (= Enlil),
named the strong and *important leaders (…)
and recruited them for the gods to provide (for them).
Now Enki praised (Enlil’s) *hoe,
and the girl Nidaba was made responsible for (keeping a record of) the decision.
And so (the people) *took the shining *hoes, the pure *hoes into their hands (and started to work):
Building of Temples (lines 35–58)
(The Ekur in Nippur: 35–41; the Abzu in Eridu: 42–45; Ninḫursaĝa’s temple in Keš: 46–48; the Eanna in Uruk: 49–51; Inanna’s temple in Zabalam: 52–55; Nidaba’s “equal temple”: 56–58)
The Ekur, the temple of Enlil, was founded with the hoe,
during the day it *was building, during the night it *caused (the temple) to grow.
Into Nippur, the well founded, (…)
into the innermost chamber of the *Tummal entered the hero Ninurta
with regular food deliveries into the presence of Enlil, (…)
and so did the pure Nininsina with black kids and fruit offerings for the lord.
(Next comes) the Abzu, the one with the lion face (= its gate), where the divine offices *may not be claimed:
The *hoe wielder (= builder), (…), the lord Nudimmud (= Enki),
*was building the Abzu, Eridu having been chosen as a *construction site.
The mother of the gods, Ninḫursaĝa,
had the *“mighty light of the lord” live with her in Kesh,
had Shulpaea indeed help her with the *construction work.
The temple Eanna was cleaned up by the *hoe.
— (For) the lady of Eanna (= Inanna), the noble *cow,
the *hoe stands for (cleaning up) ruins; the *hoe means (removing) weeds. —
Concerning the city of *Zabalam the *hoe is Inanna’s work force. (…)
With (her) *building project Utu was ready to help her.
(…)
The lady with the *intelligent mind, Nidaba, ordered the measuring of the Eanna as (part of) a *construction project
and (according to the result) designed (her own) “Equal Temple” for *construction.
Other Gods and their Relationship with the Hoe or the Syllable /al/ (lines 59–70)
The *king who has measured (or: counted) the *hoe(s), who has *spent the day in the tracks (made by the hoe),
the hero Ninurta has introduced working with the *hoe in the *rebellious land:
he *subdues the city that does not obey (its) lord.
Towards heaven he *roars like a storm,
earthwards he *strikes like a *dragon.
Shara sat down on Enlil’s knees,
and (Enlil) gave him what he had *desired:
mace, weapon, arrow, quiver, and the *hoe he had mentioned.
Dumuzi is the one who makes the “upper land” *fertile.
Gibil made his *hoe lift its head towards heaven,
the *hoe, the pure one indeed, he had refined with fire.
The Anuna were *rejoicing.
The Syllable /al/ Occurs in Sumerian Words in all Aspects of Life (lines 71–93)
The temple of G̃eshtinanna resembled an *alĝarsur-instrument,
(…) which had a beautiful sound.
The lord (= Enlil) bellowed at his *hoe like a bull.
(Concerning) the *grave: the *hoe buries people,
but the dead body is also brought up from the earth by the *hoe.
The hero honored by An, the younger brother of *Nergal,
the warrior Gilgamesh: with the *hoe he is (as powerful as) a hunting net.
The son of Ninsun: with the *oars he is foremost,
with the hoe he is the great *barber of the river.
(…)
In the sky (/al/) is the *ALTIRIKU–bird, the bird of the god,
for the earth (/al/) is the *hoe, in the canebrake it is a *dog, in the forest it is a *dragon.
On the battle field it is the *DURALLUL–ax.
At the city wall it is the *warfare net.
At the dining table it is the *maltum–bowl.
At the carriage it is the *majaltum–sledge.
In the donkey stable it is the *ARGIBIL–structure.
It is the *hoe! Its name (= the sound of this word) which is sweet, also *occurs in the mountains:
the wood of the mountains is the *allānum–oak,
the fragrance of the mountains is the *argānum-balm,
the rock of the mountains is the *ALGAMEŠUM-steatite.
The Practical Use of the Hoe (lines 94–106)
The *hoe makes (everything) prosper, the *hoe makes (everything) grow lush,
the *hoe (means) good barley, the *hoe (works like) a hunting net.
The *hoe (has to do with) the brickmold, the *hoe has made mankind *appear.
It is the *hoe that is the arm of young manhood.
The *hoe and the basket are the tools for building cities.
It *builds the right kind of house, it *cultivates the right kind of field.
You (oh hoe!) are the one who *makes the good field fertile.
The field that has *rebelled against its *owner,
the field that has not submitted to its *owner,
the *hoe makes it subdue to its *master:
it smashes off the heads from the halfa–grass,
at its roots it extracts it, it tears off its stalks,
the *hoe (also) *subdues the ḪURIN-weed.
Doxology to the Hoe and Nidaba Follows.
REFERENCES
HKL 1:155; 2:84 ad TCL 16:72 = de Genouillac 1930; Civil 1969; Falkenstein 1963; Farber forthcoming; Jacobsen 1946; Kramer 1944:51–53; Pettinato 1971:82–85; Wilcke 1972.
THE ERIDU GENESIS (1.158)
Thorkild Jacobsen
The fragment here translated was written at some time around 1600 B.C. It constitutes the lower third of a six–column tablet, the upper part of which, containing roughly some 36 lines per column, is lost. The content of the lost sections can be restored to some extent from other versions of the same tradition, most of which are of later date. By the time of the Assyrian Empire the tradition in somewhat shortened form had been included in the so–called Babylonian Chronicle (cf. Text 1.137 above), heading it.
The story, which has a structure much like that of the biblical stories in Genesis, dealt with the creation of men and animals, the antediluvian cities and their rulers, and finally the Deluge, paralleling in order the creation, the antediluvian patriarchs, and the story of the Deluge in the Bible. It may conceivably have served as model or inspiration for the biblical account.
(long lacuna)
Mother Goddess Pities the Nomad Existence of Man
[Nintur] was paying [attention:]
“Let me bethink myself of my humankind,
(all) forgotten as they are;
and mind[ful] of mine, Nintur’s, creatures
let me bring them back,
let me lead the people back from their trails.”
“May they come and build cities and cult places,
that I may cool myself in their shade;
may they lay the bricks for the cult cities
in pure spots, and
may they found places for divination
in pure spots!”
She gave directions for purification, and cries for clemency, the things that cool (divine) wrath,
(10´) perfected the divine service and the august offices,
said to the (surrounding) regions: “Let me institute peace there!”
When An, Enlil, Enki, and Ninḫursaga
fashioned the dark–headed (people),
they had made the small animals (that come up) from (out of) the earth
come from the earth in abundance
and had let there be, as befits (it), gazelles,
(wild) donkeys, and four–footed beasts in the desert.
[…]
(Lost account of first attempt at city–building failing for lack of leadership[?])
Mother Goddess Institutes Kingship
[“…] and let me have [h]im [a]dvise;
let me have him overse[e] their [la]bor,
and let him t[each] the nation to follow along
unerringly like [cat]tle!”
When the royal [sce]pter was com[ing] down from heaven,
the august [cr]own and the royal [th]rone being already down from heaven,
he (the king) [regularly] performed to perfection the august divine services and offices,
laid [the bricks] of those cities [in pure spots.]
(40´) They were [n]amed by name and [allotted [ha]lf-bushel baskets.
First Cities
The firstling of those cities, Eridu,
she gave to the leader Nudimmud,
the second, Bad–Tibira, she gave to the prince and
the sacred one
the third, Larak, she gave to Pahilsag,
the fourth, Sippar, she gave to the gallant, Utu.
the fifth, Shuruppak, she gave to Ansud.
These cities, which had been named by names,
and had been allotted half–bushel baskets,
dredged the canals, which were blocked with purplish
(wind–borne) clay, and they carried water.
Their cleaning of the smaller canals
established abundant growth.
[…]
(Lost account of the antediluvian rulers,11 and of how human noises vexed the chief god Enlil so much that he persuaded the divine assembly to vote the destruction of man by the deluge.)
That day Nin[tur] wept over her creatures
and holy Inanna [was full] of grief over their people;
but Enki to[ok] counsel with his own heart.
An, Enlil, Enki, and Ninḫursaga
had the gods of heaven and earth [swear] by the names An and Enlil.
Ziusudra’s Vision of the Gods Assembling
At that time Ziusudra was king
and lustration priest.
He fashioned, being a seer,
the god of giddiness
and [stood] in awe beside it, wording his
wishes humbly.
[As he] stood there regularly day after day
(90´) something that was not a dream was appear-
ing: conversa[tion]
a swearing (of) oaths by heaven and earth,
[a touching of throats]
and the gods [bringing their] thwar[ts] (up) to [K]iur.
Enki’s Advice
And as Ziusudra stood there beside it, he [went on he]aring:
“Step up to the wall to my left and listen!
Let me speak a word to you at the wall
[and may you grasp] what [I] say,
May you he[ed] my advice!
By our hand a flood will sweep over
(the cities of) the half–bushel bas[kets, and the country;]
[the decision,] that mankind is to be destroyed,
has been made.
a verdict, a command of the assemb[ly
cannot be revoked,]
(100´) an order of An and En[lil is not known
ever to have been countermanded,]
their kingship, their term, [has been uprooted
they must bethink themselves of that]
Now […]
What I ha[ve to say to you …”]
[…]
(Lost account of Enki’s advice to build a boat and load it with pairs of living things and Ziusudra’s compliance.)
The Deluge
All the evil winds, all stormy winds gathered into one and with them, then, the Flood was sweeping over (the cities of)
the half-bushel baskets
for seven days and seven nights.
After the flood had swept over the country,
after the evil wind had tossed the big boat about on the great waters,
the sun came out spreading light over heaven and earth.
Ziusudra’s Offering at End of Flood
Ziusudra then drilled an opening in the big boat.
and the gallant Utu sent his light
into the interior of the big boat.
(140´) Ziusudra, being the king,
stepped up before Utu kissing the ground (before him).
The king was butchering oxen, was being lavish with the sheep
[barley cak]es, crescents together with […]
[…] he was crumbling for him
[…]
[juniper, the pure plant of the
mountains] he filled [on the fire]
and with a […] clasped to
[the breast he …]
[…]
(Lost account of Enlil’s wrath at finding survivors and his mollification by Enki.)
End of Enki’s Speech
“You here have sworn
by the life’s breath of heaven
the life’s breath of earth
that he verily is allied with you yourself;
you there, An and Enlil,
have sworn by the life’s breath of heaven,
the life’s breath of earth,
that he is allied with all of you.
He will disembark the small animals
that come up from the earth!”
Ziusudra Rewarded
Ziusudra, being king,
stepped up before An and Enlil
kissing the ground,
And An and Enlil after hono[ring him]
(180´) were granting him life like a god’s,
were making lasting breath of life, like a god’s,
descend into him.
That day they made Ziusudra,
preserver, as king, of the name of the small
animals and the seed of mankind,
live toward the east over the mountains
in Mount Dilmun.
REFERENCES
Jacobsen 1987a:145–150.
ENKI AND NINMAḪ (1.159)
Jacob Klein
This archaic and still partly incomprehensible myth praises Enki, the god of the subterranean fresh waters, wisdom and magic, for having planned and directed the creation of mankind and for having devised ways in which the physically handicapped could adjust to society. The myth seems to consist of two originally independent stories. The first part tells the story of the creation of man rather briefly (lines 1–43). Man was created from pieces of clay, placed in the womb of the mother-goddesses where he obtained his form and was given birth. He was created for the purpose of relieving the gods from their hard labor, and especially from digging canals for irrigation agriculture. The second part (lines 44–139) tells of a contest between the mother-goddess Ninmah and Enki during a feast celebrating man’s creation. At first Ninmah creates a number of crippled and handicapped human beings, challenging Enki to solve their problem. Enki cleverly “decrees their fate,” assigning them a function in society whereby they earn their living in an honorable way. When Ninmah gives up, it is Enki’s turn to create an abnormal creature. Enki creates a human wreck, whose nature cannot be precisely determined (either an aborted fetus or an old man), and with which Ninmah is unable to cope. The end of the second part is damaged and obscure, but it is clear that Enki prevails over Ninmah in the contest. The myth concludes with the following statement (lines 140–141): “Ninmah did not equal the great lord Enki/ Father Enki, your praise is sweet.” In spite of its fragmentary state of preservation, the myth is highly important from the point of view of the history of religion because it is the earliest composition dealing with the theme of man’s creation, and as such it is a forerunner to the First Tablet of the Babylonian Story of the Flood (see text 1.130), as well as to the two parallel stories of creation of man in the Bible (Gen 1–2).
Genesis and the Labor of the Gods (lines 1–11)
In those days, in the days
when heaven and earth were [created],
In those nights, in the nights
when heaven and earth were [created],
In those [years], in the years
when the fates [were decreed],
When the Anunna-gods were born,
(5) When the goddesses were taken
in marriage,
When the goddesses were distributed
in heaven and earth,
When the goddesses were inseminated,
became pregnant and gave birth,
The gods who baked their daily-bread,
(and) set therewith their tables —
The senior gods did oversee the work,
while the minor gods were bearing the toil.
(10) The gods were digging the canals,
were piling up their silt in Ḫarali;
The gods were dredging the clay,
they were complaining about their (hard) life. c
Rebellion of the Gods Against Enki (lines 12–23)
At that time, the one of immense wisdom,
the creator of all the senior gods,
Enki, in the deep E-engura,10
in the flowing water, a place
whose inside no god has ever seen,
Lay on his bed, would not arise
from (his) sleep.
(15) The gods were weeping and were saying:
“He brought about this misery!”
To the sleeping one who lay at rest,
(to him who) would not arise from his sleep,
Nammu, the primeval mother,
the bearer of the senior gods,
Brought the tears of the gods to her son:
“You are verily slumbering (?),
you are verily sleeping,
(20) [You (?)] of (?) yourself (?)
would [not (?)] arise;
The gods, your ‘handiwork,’
are smashing their equipment (?)!
My son, arise from your bed;
and when you have searched out wise
counsel with your ingenuity,
When you have fashioned a worker
comparable (?) to the gods,
may they relax from their toil!”
Enki’s Plan as to the Creation of Man (lines 24–37)
Enki, at the word of his mother,
Nammu, arose from his bed,
(25) In Ḫalankug, his room of taking counsel,
he smote (?) his thigh,
The wise and intelligent one,
the custodian of heaven (?) and earth (?),
the-fashioner-of-the-forms of every being,
created two (?) birth-goddesses.
Enki stationed them at his side,
examining them carefully.
And when Enki, the-fashioner-of-the-forms,
pondered by himself their nature,
He said to his mother, Nammu:
(30) “My mother, the creature which you named (?),
will verily exist; impose (on him)
the burden of the gods!g
When you have mixed the ‘heart’ of
the clay on top of the Abzu,
The two (?) birth-goddesses shall nip off
pieces of clay. When you yourself
have given (it) form, h
Let Ninmah serve as your helper.
And let Ninimma, Shuzianna, Ninmada, Ninbara,
(35) Ninmug, Musardu and Ningunna
Assist you as you activate birthgiving.22
My mother, after you decree his fate,
let Ninmah impose on him the burden.”
Creation of Man according to Enki’s Plan
(lines 38–43)
[Thus (?)] she created mankind
ma[le and female (?) …].
By the male inseminating [the female (?)],
mankind [will beget (?)] an offspring,
(40) [After (?) nine (?) months (?) of (?)] pregnancy (?)
a man (?) will be [born (?)] j …
… she placed it on alfa-grass,
purified its delivery. k
Ninmah Challenges Enki during a Banquet
(lines 52–57)
Enki and Ninmah were drinking beer,
and their heart became elated.
Ninmah said to Enki:
“What (ever) makes the form of man good or
bad — it is within my power;
(55) As my heart prompts me, I can make
(its) ‘fate’ good or bad!”
Enki answered Ninmah:
“Let me counterbalance the ‘fate’,
desired by your heart — good or bad!”
Contest Between Ninmah and Enki: The Creation of Cripples and their Social Status (lines 58–78)
Ninmah took in her hand clay
from the top of the Abzu;
She fashioned from it the first man:
one (who) could not bend his stiffened (?)
hands to reach out (for anything).
(60) Enki — upon seeing the first man
(who) could not bend his stiffened (?)
hands to reach out (for anything),
Decreed its fate: he made him stand
in attention at the head of the king.
Second — she fashioned from it one
‘deprived of light,’ a blind (?) man. l
Enki — upon seeing the one ‘deprived
of light,’ the blind (?) man,
Decreed its fate: he allotted
to it the musical art,
(65) And seated it (as) chief-[musician]
in a place of honor, before the king.
Third – [she fashioned from it one la]me
as to [both feet], m crippled of feet.
Enki – [upon see]ing the one lame
as to both feet, crippled of feet,
He taught (?) it the work of [the metal-caster]
and silver-smith, his …
Fourth — she fashioned from it
a man discharging semen. n
(70) Enki — upon seeing the man
discharging semen,
Bathed him in water (blessed) with incantation,
and removed Death from his body.
Fifth — she fashioned from it a woman
who could not give birth.
Enki — upon seeing the woman
who could not give birth,
Decreed her fate, he assigned her
to do work in the Women’s Quarter.
(75) Sixth — she fashioned from it a man,
in whose body neither male organ
nor female organ was placed.
Enki — upon seeing the man
in whose body neither male organ
nor female organ was placed,
He called him: “Nippurean (?)-the-courtier,”
And decreed him as his fate to stand
in attendance before the king.
Ninmah threw the pinch of clay
in her hand on the ground,
and a great silence fell.
(80) The great lord, Enki, said to Ninmah:
“I have decreed the fate for those
whom you have fashioned,
and given them (their daily) bread.
Now come, let me fashion (one) for you;
and do you decree the fate of that newborn!”
REFERENCES
Benito 1969:1–81; Green 1975:170–174; Jacobsen 1987a:151–166; Kramer 1989:188–198; Lambert and Millard 1969:42–70; Pettinato 1971; Sauren 1993.
THE EXALTATION OF INANNA (1.160)
William W. Hallo
This is one of three hymns to the goddess Inanna attributed to Enheduanna in its own text. All three are listed together at the beginning of a literary catalogue, with this composition last (Cohen 1976:131f.). The cycle is a counterpart to The Collection of the Temple Hymns, another cycle attributed to the same author (Sjöberg and Bergmann 1969). If the latter reflects on Sargon, the author’s father, founder of the first documented empire in Asia, at peace, the former cycle describes him at war. But it does so in highly metaphoric terms, crediting the victories of the Sargonic dynasty to Inanna, its patron deity. Enheduanna emerges from these and other works (Westenholz 1989) as a genuine creative talent, a poetess as well as a princess, a priestess and a prophetess. She is, in fact, the first non-anonymous and non-legendary author in history. As such she has found her way into contemporary anthologies, especially of women’s literature (Barnstone and Barnstone 1980:1–8; Kilmer in Bankier and Lashgari 1983:111–117).
A. Exordium
(i) Inanna and the divine attributes
Lady of all the divine attributes,
resplendent light,
Righteous woman clothed in radiance,
beloved of Heaven and Earth,
Hierodule of An,
(you) of all the great ornaments,
Enamored of the appropriate tiara,
suitable for the high-priesthood,
(5) Whose hand has attained
(all) the “seven” divine attributes,
Oh my lady, you are the guardian
of all the great divine attributes!
You have picked up the divine attributes,
you have hung the divine attributes on your hand,
You have gathered up the divine attributes,
you have clasped the divine attributes to your breast.
(ii) Inanna and An (Heaven)
Like a dragon you have deposited venom on the foreign land.
(10) When you roar at the earth like Thunder,
no vegetation can stand up to you.
A flood descending from its mountain,
Oh foremost one, you are the Inanna of heaven and earth!
Raining the flaming fire down upon the nation,
Endowed with divine attributes by An,
lady mounted on a beast,
(15) Who makes decisions at the holy command of An.
(You) of all the great rites,
who can fathom what is yours?
(iii) Inanna and Enlil
Devastatrix of the lands,
you are lent wings by the storm.
Beloved of Enlil,
you fly about in the nation.
You are at the service of the decrees of An.
(20) Oh my lady, at the sound of you
you make the foreign lands bow down.
At (your) tempestuous radiance, mankind
In fear and trembling
when it comes before you,
Receives from you its just deserts.
A song of lamentation it begins for you.
(25) It walks toward you along the path
of the house of all the great sighs.
(iv) Inanna and Ishkur
In the van of battle
everything is struck down by you.
Oh my lady, (propelled) on your own wings,
you peck away (at the land).
In the guise of a charging storm you charge
With a roaring storm you roar.
(30) With Thunder you continually thunder.
With all the evil winds you snort.
Your feet are filled with restlessness.
To (the accompaniment of) the harp of sighs
you give vent to a dirge.
(v) Inanna and the Anunna
Oh my lady, the Anunna, the great gods,
(35) Fluttering like bats
Fly off from before you to the clefts,
They who dare not walk in your terrible glance,
Who dare not proceed before your terrible countenance.
Who can temper your raging heart?
Your malevolent heart is beyond tempering.
(40) Lady (who) soothes the reins, lady (who) gladdens the heart,
Whose rage is not tempered,
oh great daughter of Suen!
Lady supreme over the foreign land,
who has (ever) denied (you) homage?
(vi) Inanna and Mt. Ebih
In the mountain where homage is withheld from you
vegetation is accursed.
Its grand entrance you have reduced to ashes.
(45) Blood rises in its rivers for you,
its people have nought to drink.
It leads its army captive before you of its own accord.
It disbands its regiments before you of its own accord.
It makes its able-bodied young men parade before you of their own accord.
A tempest has filled the dancing places of its city.
(50) It drives its young adults before you as captives.
(vii) Inanna and Uruk (?)
Because the city has not declared
“The land is yours,”
Because they have not declared
“It is your father’s, your begettor’s,”
You have spoken your holy command,
have verily turned it back from your path,
Have verily removed your foot from out of its byre.
(55) Its woman no longer speaks of love with her husband.
At night they no longer have intercourse.
She no longer reveals to him her inmost treasures.
Impetuous wild cow, great daughter of Suen,
Lady supreme over An,
who has (ever) denied (you) homage?
(viii) Invocation of Inanna
(60) You of the appropriate divine attributes,
great lady of ladies,
Issued from the holy womb,
supreme over the mother who bore you,
Omniscient sage, lady of all the foreign lands,
Sustenance of the multitudes,
I have verily recited your sacred song!
True goddess, fit for the divine attributes,
it is exalting to acclaim you.
(65) Merciful one, brilliant, righteous woman,
I have verily recited your divine attributes for you!
B. The Argument
(ix) The Banishment from Ur
Verily I had entered my holy cloister at your behest,
I, the high-priestess, I, Enheduanna!
I carried the ritual basket, I intoned the acclaim.
(But now) one has placed me in the leper’s ward,
I, even I, can no longer live with you!
(70) They approach the light of day,
the light is obscured about me,
The shadows approach the light of day,
it is covered (as) with a (sand)storm.
My mellifluous mouth is cast into confusion.
My choices features are turned to dust.
(x) The Appeal to Inanna (?)
My fate — it concerns Suen and Lugalanne —
(75) Report it to An! May An release me!
Say but to An “Now!” and An will release me (saying):
“This woman will carry off the fate of Lugalanne.
Mountain (and) flood lie at her feet.
That woman is as exalted (as he) —
she will make the city abandon him.”
(80) Surely she will assuage her heartfelt rage for me.
Let me, Enheduanna, recite a prayer to her.
My tears like sweet drink
Let me give free vent to for the holy Inanna,
Let me say “Hail!” to her!
(xi) The Indictment of Lugalanne (?)
I cannot appease Ashimbabbar.
(85) He (Lugalanne?) has altered the lustrations of holy An and all his (rites) whatsoever.
He has verily carried off from An (his temple) Eanna.
He has not stood in awe of King An.
That sanctuary whose attractions are irresistible,
whose beauty is endless,
That sanctuary he has verily brought to destruction.
(90) When he began to enter there,
he became jealous of him.
Oh my divine impetuous wild cow, drive out this man, capture this man!
(xii) The Curse of Uruk
In the “Place of Sustenance” what am I, even I?
(Uruk) is a malevolent rebel against your Nanna —
may An make it surrender!
This city — may it be sundered by An!
(95) May it be cursed by Enlil!
May its plaintive child not be placated by his mother!
Oh lady, the (harp of) mourning is placed on the ground.
One had verily beached your ship of mourning
on a hostile shore.
At (the sound of) my sacred song
I am/the are ready to die.
(xiii) The Indictment of Nanna
(100) As for me, my Nanna takes no heed of me.
In murderous straits,
he has verily given me over to destruction.
Ashimbabbar has not pronounced my judgment.
Had he pronounced it: what is it to me?
Had he not pronounced it: what is it to me?
(Me) who once sat triumphant
he has driven out of the sanctuary.
(105) Like a swallow he made me fly from the window, my life is consumed.
In the bramble of the mountain he made me walk.
The crown appropriate for the high-priesthood
he carried off from me.
He gave me dagger and sword —
“it becomes you,” he said to me.
(xiv) Second (?) Appeal to Inanna
Most precious lady, beloved of An,
(110) Your holy heart is lofty,
may it be assuaged on my behalf!
Beloved bride of Ushumgal-anna
Of the heavenly foundations and zenith
you are the “senior” queen.
The Anunna have submitted to you.
From birth on you were the “junior” queen.
(115) Over the great gods, the Anunna,
how supreme you are!
The Anunna with their lips
kiss the ground (in obeisance) to you.
(But) my own sentence is not concluded,
a hostile judgment appears before my eyes as my judgment.
(My) hands are no longer folded on the ritual couch.
The pronouncements of Ningal
I may no longer reveal to man.
(120) (Yet) I am the brilliant high-priestess of Nanna,
Oh my lady beloved of An,
may your heart take pity on me!
(xv) The Exaltation of Inanna
That one has not recited as a “Known! Be it known!” of Nanna,
that one has recited as a “Tis Thine!”:
“That you are lofty as Heaven (An) —
be it known!
That you are broad as Earth —
be it known!
(125) That you devastate the rebellious land —
be it known!
(125a) That you roar at the land —
be it known!
That you smite the heads —
be it known!
That you devour cadavers like a dog —
be it known!
That your glance is terrible —
be it known!
That you lift your terrible glance —
be it known!
(130) That your glance is flashing —
be it known!
That you are ill-disposed toward the defiant —
be it known!”
That one has not recited (this) of Nanna,
that one has recited it as a “Tis Thine!” —
(That,) oh my lady, has made you great,
you alone are exalted!
(135) Oh my lady beloved of An,
I have verily recounted your fury!
C. Peroration
(xvi) The Composition of the Hymn
One has heaped up the coals (in the censer),
prepared the lustration.
The nuptial chamber awaits you,
let your heart be appeased!
With “It is enough for me, it is too much for me!”
I have given birth, oh exalted lady,
to (this song) for you.
That which I recited to you at (mid)night
(140) May the singer repeat it to you at noon!
(Only) on account of your captive spouse,
on account of your captive child,
Your rage is increased,
your heart unassuaged.
(xvii) The Restoration of Enheduanna
The first lady, the reliance of the throne-room,
Has accepted her offerings.
Inanna’s heart has been restored.
The day was favorable for her,
she was clothed sumptuously,
she was garbed in womanly beauty.
Like the light of the rising moon,
how she was sumptuously attired!
When Nanna (Moon) appeared in proper view,
They (all) blessed her (Inanna’s) mother Ningal.
(150) The heavenly doorsill called “Hail!”
(xviii) Doxology
For that her (Enheduanna’s) speaking to the Hierodule (Inanna)
was exalted —
(To) the devastatrix of the foreign lands,
endowed with divine attributes from An,
(To) my lady wrapped in beauty,
(to) Inanna: Praise!
REFERENCES
Texts: numerous whole or partial duplicates as listed in Hallo and van Dijk 1968:36f. and subsequent reviews. Translations and studies: Barnstone and Barnstone 1980; Hallo and van Dijk 1968; Heimpel 1971; Kilmer 1983; Kramer ANET 579–582; Römer 1972; Sauren 1970; Westenholz 1989; Wilcke 1976a.
INANNA AND ENKI (1.161)
Gertrud Farber
The exact date of the origin of this composition is unknown. It has come down to us in only very few sources, all of which stem from the Old Babylonian scribal school of Nippur.
The main topic of the myth is the love goddess Inanna’s attempt to increase her city Uruk’s and her own power and influence. She therefore wants to bring into her possession the ME, the cultural norms which are the basis of Sumerian civilization and all aspects of life. These cultural norms are stored like concrete objects in Enki’s underwater temple in Eridu. During Inanna’s visit to Eridu, Enki, the god of wisdom, bestows the ME on her, while he is drunk. She manages to escape with them and securely brings them to her hometown Uruk despite several attempts by Enki to stop her. Unfortunately, the last lines of the text are poorly preserved, and it is still unclear how the conflict between Inanna and Enki is settled.3
The importance of “Inanna and Enki” lies in the detailed listing of the ME, which gives us some insight into Sumerian thinking — how they looked on life and how they understood the world.
The composition originally had some 820 lines. Repetitions and unclear lines are not included in the following translation; (…) marks abridged text.
Introduction: Inanna’s praise of her sex appeal and her plan to visit Enki in order to increase her power (Tablet I i and SLTNi 32+)
[… Inanna] placed the ŠUGURRA, the crown of the steppe, on her head.
As she went outside to the shepherd, to the sheepfold,
[…] was bent down, her vulva was to be wondered at,
[…] was righteously bent down, her vulva was to be admired.
Rejoicing at her wonderful vulva, she started to praise herself.
“(…)
When I will have directed my foot towards god Enki and the Abzu and Eridu,
I will speak coaxingly to Enki, to the Abzu and Eridu. (…)
I, the lady, I, the queen of heaven, I want to go to the Abzu,
to the lord Enki I shall speak a prayer.
Like the sweet oil of the cedar […]
(…).
On that day, the maid Inanna
directed her step all by herself
towards Enki’s Abzu in Eridu.
On that day, the one who has overpowering knowledge, who knows the divine decrees in heaven and earth,
who just from his dwelling knows about the plans of the gods,
knew everything (about the plot)
even before the radiant Inanna had approached the temple in Eridu by a mile.
Inanna’s visit in Eridu and her acquisition of the cultural norms, the ME (SLTNi 32+ and Tablet I ii – iii)
So Enki, the king of the Abzu,
spoke to his man and gave him instructions:
“Come here, man, listen to my word!
When the young girl Inanna has entered the Abzu and Eridu,
have her eat butter–cake,
let her be served cool water which refreshes the soul,
at the lion gate pour beer for her,
treat her like a friend and a colleague.
At the pure table, at the table of An,
you shall greet the radiant Inanna.”
According to these instructions
Isimud, the vizier, follows his king’s commands.
He allows the maid Inanna to enter the Abzu and Eridu,
(…)
where she gets butter–cake to eat.
Cool water, refreshing to the soul, is poured for her,
at the lion gate she is served beer.
He treats her like a friend and a colleague.
At the pure table, the table of An,
he greets her.
Enki and Inanna drink beer together in the Abzu, enjoy the taste of sweet wine.
The bronze AGA-vessels are filled to the rim,
they have a competition, (drinking from the) bronze vessels of Uraš.
[Break of 35 to 40 lines]
Enki apparently gets drunk and presents all the divine norms, or ME, which are stored in his care in the Abzu to his daughter Inanna. The presentation of several items at a time, follows the pattern:
“In the name of my power, in the name of my Abzu,
I will give them all to my daughter, the radiant Inanna, and (this) shall not be [contested].”
The … (5 to 8 items each time)
the radiant Inanna accepted.
This pattern is repeated fifteen times, of which only six, containing the ME no. 53–94, are preserved. The final listing seems to have more items. The main 94 ME are:
I (1–5) EN–ship, LAGAL–priesthood, godship, the mighty legitimate crown, the throne of kingship,
II (6–10) the noble scepter, staff and rein, the noble dress, shepherdship, kingship,
III (11–15) EGIZI–priestess–ship, NINDINGIR-priestess–ship, IŠIB-priesthood, LUMAḪ-priesthood, GUDU–priesthood,
IV (16–21) truth, …, …, descending into the Netherworld, having ascended from the Netherworld, the KURG̃ARRA-priest,
V (22–27) sword and club, the temple servant SAG̃-URSAG̃, the black dress, the colorful dress, the … hair, the … hair,
VI (28–34) [7 mainly broken ME]
VII (35–40) the standard, the quiver, love making, kissing, prostitution, running (?),
VIII (41–46) speech, slander, cajoling, …, the cult-prostitute, the pure tavern,
IX (47–52) the holy NIGING̃AR shrine, …, the hierodule of heaven, the resounding lute, the art of singing, the (wise) state of old age,
X (53–59) heroism, possession of power, dishonesty, righteousness, plundering of cities, singing of lamentations, rejoicing,
XI (60–64) deceit, the rebellious land, kindness, traveling around, the permanent home,
XII (65–72) the craft of the carpenter, the craft of the copper–smith, the art of the scribe, the craft of the smith, the craft of the leather–worker, the craft of the fuller, the craft of the builder, the craft of the mat–weaver,
XIII (73–81) understanding, knowledge, purifying washing rites, the house of the shepherd (?), heaping up of coals, the sheepfold, fear, awe, reverent silence,
XIV (82–88) the bitter toothed …, kindling of fire, extinguishing of fire, hard work, …, the assembled family, descendants,
XV (89–94) dispute, triumph, counseling, deliberation, jurisdiction, decision–making.
[Break of approximately 80 lines]
Inanna’s departure by boat and Enki’s regret (Tablet I iv – vi)
After having received the ME from Enki, Inanna leaves the Abzu while Enki seems to have fallen asleep. While she is (apparently) loading the ME on to her ship, she is listing them again, one by one, following the pattern:
“… he has given to me.”
In this section the ME no. 56–91 are preserved. It seems that she is explaining her behavior to somebody who may have objected that she removed the ME from the Abzu.6
[Break of approximately 35 lines]
Enki has woken up and gradually becomes sober again.
[Enki now addresses his vizier Isimud:]
[“My vizier Isimud, my sweet name of heaven!”]
[“My king,] Enki! I am at your service, what is your wish?”
“If she has not yet left for Uruk and Kulab,
if she has not yet left for the place (…) where the sun rises,
I need to get hold of her, because of what I have said.”
“The radiant Inanna has already gathered up all the ME, she has boarded the ‘boat of heaven,’
and the ‘boat of heaven’ has left the quay.”
When the one who had drunk beer, who had drunk (too much) beer, had thrown up all the beer,
when father Enki, the one who had drunk (too much) beer, had thrown up the beer,
the great lord Enki gave all his attention to […].
The lord (now) looks thoroughly at his Abzu
and then speaks to his vizier Isimud:
“My vizier Isimud, my sweet name of heaven!”
“My king Enki, I am at your service, what is your wish?”
The sobered Enki now asks Isimud where all his ME have disappeared to. He names them all in groups, following the pattern:
“The …, where are they?”
Nine of the groups are preserved, listing ME no. 1–52.
[Break of approximately 35 lines]
The 20 poorly preserved lines of column vi can still not be restored properly. They tell about a frog sitting at the entrance door of Enki’s temple. Perhaps the frog is being blamed for having let Inanna escape through the door with all her presents.
[Break of 10 to 15 lines]
Enki’s futile attempts to retrieve the ME (Tablet II i – iv 17)
The prince speaks to his vizier Isimud,
Enki addresses his “sweet name of heaven”:
“My vizier Isimud, my sweet name of heaven!”
“My king Enki, I am at your service, what is your wish?”
“The ‘boat of heaven,’ how far has it traveled?”
“Right now, it has reached the […] quay.”
“Go! The Enkum shall seize the boat from her!”
The vizier Isimud speaks to the radiant Inanna:
“My lady, your father has sent me to you.
What your father has said is sublime,
what Enki has remarked is sublime.
His important words may not be disregarded.”
To this the radiant Inanna answers:
“What did my father say to you? What did he remark to you?
Why may his important speech not be disregarded?”
“My king has said to me,
Enki has instructed me:
‘Inanna shall return to Uruk, but you, escort the ‘boat of heaven’ to Eridu!’ ”
The radiant Inanna answers the vizier Isimud:
“Why has my father changed his word to me?
Why has he overturned his honest speech to me?
Why has he disgraced his important words to me?
My father has spoken dishonestly to me, he has spoken insincerely to me.
Untruthfully he has made his promises in the name of his power and in the name of his Abzu,
cheatingly he has sent you to me as a messenger!”
Hardly has she finished this speech,
when the Enkum try to seize the “boat of heaven.”
The radiant Inanna now says to her vizier Ninshubura:
“Come here, my faithful vizier of the Eanna,
my vizier of good tidings,
my messenger of truthful words!
Water has not touched your hand, water has not touched your foot.”
After Inanna has thus saved the ME which had been given to her, and the “boat of heaven,”
the prince speaks to his vizier Isimud a second time,
Enki addresses his “sweet name of heaven.”
(…)
In the next 170 lines Enki tries five more times to retrieve the “boat of heaven” loaded with the ME. At the pure […] the 50 “Giants of Eridu” shall seize the boat, at the hill UL.MA the 50 “LAḪAMA-demons of the Ocean” fail to capture the boat. At the hill “Field” all “Big Fish” are sent out to get the boat. At the […] the “Guardians of Uruk” are unsuccessful, and at the Iturungal River the “[…] of the Iturungal” fail once more. And so Inanna arrives safely in Uruk, bringing the ME with her.
Inanna’s Arrival in Uruk and the Ensuing Celebration (Tablet II iv 18–58)
[11 lines mostly destroyed]
Ninshubura does something concerning the “boat of heaven” with her foot and her [hand], then something happens for the seventh time, while Inanna “completes something else to perfection.”
Her vizier Ninshubura
[addresses] the radiant Inanna:
“My lady, on the day you [bring] the ‘boat of heaven’ to the gate [‘Joy,’ to Uruk–Kulab],
our city will [revel] in abundance,
(…),
on our [canals] cargo–boats [will …].”
To that the radiant Inanna answers her:
“On the day I [bring] the ‘boat of heaven’ to the gate ‘Joy,’ to Uruk–Kulab,
it shall pass along the [street] magnificently.
[The people] shall stand in the street full of awe.
(…)
The old men [shall receive] prudence,
the old women [shall receive] wise counsel,
to the young men [I will give] the strength [of weapons],
the little children [shall be happy!]
[Break of 6 lines]
[…] the ‘boat of heaven,’ [there shall be a] festival!
The king shall slaughter oxen, [many sheep he shall bring],
beer he shall pour into the cups.
May he [sound] the drums and timpani,
may he skilfully [play] the sweet TIGI–instruments.
All the lands shall [proclaim] my sublimity,
my people shall praise my glory!”
On the day she brought the “boat of heaven” to the gate “Joy,” to Uruk–Kulab,
it passed along the streets magnificently […].
It reached the house of the maid, and [she determined] its place.
[It passed] the pure well, her main well.
Inanna had the ME which had been bestowed on her and the “boat of heaven” [land] at the gate of the G̃IPAR,
she had them […] at the entrance of the AGRUN (a divine dwelling).
Shining brightly, the radiant Inanna then [blessed] the place [where] the “boat of heaven” [had docked].
The narrative moves back to Eridu.
The prince now [says] to his vizier Isimud,
Enki [addresses] his “sweet name of heaven”:
“My vizier Isimud, my sweet name [of heaven]!”
“My king Enki, I am at your service, [what is your wish]?”
“The ‘boat of heaven,’ how far has it traveled?”
“It has arrived at the ‘White Quay.’ ”
“Go! admiration shall be […],
[…] admire the ‘boat of heaven.’ ”
[Break of approximately 5 lines]
The Unloading of the ME in Uruk (Tablet II iv 59 – vi 50)
Isimud has apparently arrived in Uruk at the “White Quay” and is taking part in the festivities. Inanna now starts unloading the ME, and it may be Isimud who lists them individually (line by line) as she takes them from the “boat of heaven,” following the pattern:
“The … you have brought with you.”
Following this enumeration of the 94 cultural norms are 16 more items which are only partly preserved. They can either be additional ME or represent a more general description of the goods brought home by Inanna.
“To place […] on the ground, the charm of all women you have brought with you.
[The ability (?)] to use the ME correctly, you have brought.
[Two lines or items broken.]
The holy percussion instruments TIGI, LILIS, UB, MEZE, and ALA, [and six more items] of An you have brought,
[…] the magnificent […], as many as there are, while he was preparing beer, you have brought with you.”
[Break of 8 lines]
Full of joy, the woman gave the […]
the name “the house of the Netherworld has been built.”
Like the merchant who had said “fifty shekel,”
then brought them, and there were less,
the place (where this happened) she called “potsherd and rubbish.”
The place where the boat had (almost) been turned around
she called “(his) mind has changed.”
The place where the boat had docked
she called “the white quay.”
The place where she had unloaded [the ME], one by one,
she called “the lapis lazuli quay.”
The Settling of the Conflict between Enki and Inanna, perhaps by Enlil (Tablet II vi 51 – 67)
In the meantime Enki has arrived in Uruk. But it seems from the way Enki and Inanna are talking that they are addressing a third person, someone else who has arrived as a deus ex machina to settle the conflict. The only arbiter both gods might accept would probably be Enlil.
Enki addresses the radiant Inanna:
“In the name of my power, in the name of my Abzu,
for this woman (here he addresses somebody else, not Inanna) I will place […] in my Abzu.”
“Why has this man (Inanna talks about an intruder, not about Enki) now entered here,
[…] taking the ME from me?”
Enlil (?) answers by giving orders including some punishment like the crushing of some women’s vulvas. But he also creates a festival.
[7 lines are largely destroyed]
Enlil (?) continues:
“At the gate of the G̃IPAR [your people shall] spend their days,
[at the entrance to the AGRUN], the inhabitants of your city, the inhabitants of Uruk shall live (happily).
And concerning you (addressing Enki), to your city Eridu she has already added [the ME (?)], she has indeed returned them to their original location.”
REFERENCES
Alster 1972; 1973; 1974a; Farber 1973; 1990; 1995; Green 1976; Kramer 1944; Kramer and Maier 1989; Waetzoldt 1975; Wolkstein and Kramer 1983.
2. HYMNS
TO NANSHE (1.162)
Wolfgang Heimpel
Is it not the city, is it not the city, are its divine powers not proclaimed?
Is it not the city Nina, are its divine powers not proclaimed?
Is it not the city, the pure city, are its divine powers not proclaimed?
Is it not a mountain carried above water, the city, are its divine powers not proclaimed?
5 Does not the day of the good house appear, has not its destiny been determined?
Does not propriety shine in the city?
Are not the rites of mother Nanshe organized?
Is not its lady, the child born in Eridu,
Nanshe, the lady of precious divine powers, restoring (them)?
10 The mother — is it not resin? —, the mother — is it not yeast? —,
Is not Nanshe mother of great things?
In the living quarters of the land heavy (things) exist in her presence.
In the stores honey … like resin.
Vases with everflowing water stood before her.
15 Boxes with the storables of the land covered like silt, the thing of the river, the ground before Nanshe.
…
20 She knows the orphan, she knows the widow.
She knows that person oppresses person. A mother for the orphan,
Nanshe, a caretaker for the widow, finding a way for houses in debt,
the lady shelters the abducted person,
25 seeks a place for the weak,
swells him his collecting basket,
(and) makes his collecting vat profitable.
For an honest maid who seized her feet
Nanshe counts a man of good means;
30 (and) it is the widow that Nanshe endows with an unmarried person
(who is for her) like a roof in a good house.
Does not propriety shine in presence of the lady?
Did not Nanshe — in her presence “hands” are tripled in plenty in Lagash —
call the lord to the holy heart?
35 The lion of Nanshe, the beloved lord of La-gash, filled the dais in her presence.
She gave the shepherd the mighty scepter.
She perfected Gudea with her precious powers.
Her shepherd, whom she had called to the holy heart,
Gudea, governor of Lagash,
40 set (the lyre) Cow Plenty among the drums,
set the silver drum at its side.
While holy songs, harmonious songs, were performed for her,
small copper sickles praise the house.
The chief musician plays her the ibex horn.
45 The “Has not the house been granted divine powers from Abzu?”
was performed through princely powers of the holy songs of house Sirara.
The dream interpreter brought her the (utensils) of the first fruit (festival);a
held the glittering silver cups out to her.
The temple cook [ ];
50 hot and cold things he brings straight before her.
He brought the … of the oven before her.
[ ] the great shovel resounds before her.
When meat cuts were brought in large bowls,
when cool water was brought from the Sirara river,
55 when the festival trappings were brought from (the city) Lagash,
when liquor was brought from the countryside,
her large oven which matches the large hall,
Nanshe’s sanctuary of bread distribution, hums.
The lady, the elder woman of Enlil,
60 Nanshe, the lady who lives in plenty in the land,
…, the child of Enki,
places a person, a good woman for a good house.
After she placed a person, a good woman for a good house,
the daily provisions of the house came straight from the Bursag.
65 For these rites the barley does not suffice.
The vases were empty, poured no water.
The person who helped with its regular provisions does not receive extra.
What was distributed over and above food and water,
what was left of the regular provisions, what was not used by the house,
70 what was expended as first item of fish of the tax,
allowing a measure of one acre of canebrake for each of its (the house’s) servants,
what was received in nuts and green plants within the garden,
after it (the above) passed (to the house) no mouth touches it.
Bread of the neighborhood shrines are not carried as bread distribution.
75 (Before,) a person came for a gift of prime beer: (now) he did not collect cool water.
Its (the house’s) established first fruit (festival) is reorganized, (so as) not to cease (again).
There was (now) indeed a fat carrier who passes fat to the house.
There was (now) indeed a cheese carrier who passes cheese to the house,
(and) a courier with fish, a person of daily assignment.
82 Standing in the corners (or) on the sides (instead of helping)
80 when the firewood carrier passed by with what he brought from the steppe
81 to the house of his lady;
83 concealing something, saying something else (will not be effective):
Entering the house of Nanshe from the outside (means) not leaving it from inside.
85 The caretaker of the house of Nanshe, the child born by Utu,
lord Hendursaga …
The king recognized that which is said (with) good (intention), recognized that which
is said (with) bad (intention);
Hendursaga recognized that which is said (with) good (intention), recognized that
which is said (with) bad (intention).
Those [ ] … which (could) be obstructed by evil ones he planted her (firmly as) a tree.
90 Ningublaga, heroic child of noble Sin,
plants it for Nanshe (straight as) a reed in (the face of potential) destructive claims (against) it.
May the lady of right utterance and inalienable divine powers,
may Nanshe be praised in all lands!
On the edge of the year, the day of rites,
95 the lady poured water in the holy outside.
On the day when the bowls of allotments are inspected
Nanshe inspects the reviewing of servants.
Did not her chief scribe Nisaba
place precious tablets on (her) knees?
100 She took the gold stylus in hand.
For Nanshe she organized the servants in single file.
The skin–clad enters before her according to his skin;
the linen–clad passes before her according to his linen.
A skin–clad does not enter before her according to his skin,
105 a linen–clad does not pass before her according to his linen,
a person, registered and … hired,
about whom eye or ear witnesses,
witnesses of his having disappeared from the house, have spoken,
is terminated in his position at ‘the first (stroke) of the drum.’
110 The king who inquires about the good servants, Haya, man of tablets,
puts on clay the good servant of his lady who was mentioned,
deletes from clay the maid of his lady who was not mentioned.
Vases not pouring water, ‘feet not proceeding straight,’
troughs of dough not cleaned,
115 fire having gone out in the house of night,
spells interrupted in the house of day —
her prebendary who serves his term (and is responsible for these functions)
is terminated in his position.
When to a prebendary serving his term as person of food allotments against whom a complaint was lodged,
120 or to a bishop who while living in the house (of Nanshe)
did not let the holy song and her concerns shine,
when to him — he may acknowledge it, he
may not acknowledge it — further allotting is denied,
then the rules of mother Nanshe are made to appear brightly.
No more than this word of words will be established,
125 nor added to this rule.
No one will superimpose any divine power on this divine power;
No one shall superimpose anything on it.
Superimposing will not enter the house of Nanshe.
…
130 The ordeal river in the house of Nanshe clears a person.
After the decision has emerged from the holy song, the word of Abzu,
…
(Even) a casually spoken (word), set in excess on the lips,
135 will not be added to this word of words.
Refusal and threats did not arise.
A rapacious hand, stretching out a forceful hand,
a hand that keeps up with the mouth, committing violence,
(the case) that (someone) overturned an established line, (the incidence of) an altered demarcation, b
140 going ahead (when one should not) to a place of oath,
a first (loaf?) of 2 peck bread which was levied as tax, (of) 2 peck bread that had been distributed,
(the case) that Small Stone lifted the hand for Larger Stone,
that Small Peck lifted the hand for Larger Peck, c
that (someone) wants bread who has bread,
145 that (someone) who just ate does not state “I ate,”
that (someone) who just drank does not state “I drank,”
(prompting one to say) “let me set a bowl before you, let me filter beer for you,”
a maid of the deity who was lazy, (and) rebuked (for it) by the house,
an untrustworthy (person) who … while living
in the house,
150 when (a person responsible for any of the above) said “serve (me)! I want to eat,”
said “serve (me)! I want to drink,”
153 Nanshe does not allow the person to eat
152 from bread of fat and white eggs because of the violation.
154 If the violator was allowed to eat he/ (Nanshe) will not ‘carry the word about it.’
155 With … eyes, paralyzed mouth, shuffling feet,
he does not fit in, he is no match:
the powerful one [ ] over a person,
the rich one in a reed hut by the street,
one with wife [gave] away his wife for a widow,
160 who laughed one day in his rage,
makes fun another day of his calamity.
Before the lady he cannot raise his … word.
The lady, caretaker of the provinces,
Innin, mother Nanshe, sees into their hearts.
165 Getting the better of an orphan, … a widow, placing a homeless man below a rich man, placing a rich man below a poor man, d
a mother who screamed violently at her child,
a child who spoke stubbornly to its mother,
170 a younger brother who snarled at his older brother, talked back at the father — the lady, …
Nanshe, …
sees into the heart of the land as if it were a split reed.
…
175 Her herald, lord Hendursag, made the contracts for her.
Her angel Old Small Child did not let silence come over it.
The demon, standing …, watching …
[ ] her house Sirara where water is sprinkled,
…
181 Did not the one adorned with the staff, trusted in Abzu’s interior,
who has no opponent in the high temple (and) house of Nanshe?
184 the king, lord Hendursag, bring forth
183 its command from the house of Nanshe?
185 Like heavy smoke it covers the ground.
Its word spreads over the sky as … clouds.
The BULUG of spouseship he … together,
the king, lord Hendursag, he … together.
He places a good person among good persons,
190 Hands over a bad person to a bad place.
He renders judgement for an orphan,
he also renders judgement for a widow,
(and) he sets right the judgement of a child’s
mother.
If a mother shared food with her child,
195 shared drink with it,
removed chaff from its mouth:
(By her) whom its (the temple’s) person of regular provisions seated by its (the temple’s) side,
by its (the child’s) mother, the firewood carrier did not pass with what he brought from the steppe, (and) he did not talk to (such a) mother who had given birth in the great city
200 with dry eyes and shrugging shoulders.
If a mother
screamed violently at her child,
a mother ripped its …
(but) let it drink from her milk filled breast:
205 She, who searches the matter of that mother, searches the matter;
the lady of …
When the king who loves things straight, Hendursag,
has set the issues straight (and) [x–ed] the eye on its judgement,
(if) he places the blame on the mother of the child,
210 she will not be able to bear the weight of heavy blame, and
such person will have no god to pray to.
If a mother did not share food with her child,
did not share drink with it,
did not remove chaff from its mouth:
215 (By her) whom its (the temple’s) person of regular provisions did not seat on its (the temple’s) seat,
by its (the child’s) mother, the fire wood carrier passed with her share of what he brought from the steppe,
(and) he talked to (such a) mother who had given birth in the great city
with dry eyes and shrugging shoulders.
The king who hates violence, Hendursag,
220 treats such a human being as if she were water in a treacherous place,
rejects her for that child as if she were barley in sterile/soil.
The lady who [determines] the destiny like Enlil,
230 [who ] on the dais of Sirara,
has her eyes on her divine powers, the pure.
“Has not the house been granted divine powers from Abzu?”
The gods of Lagash assemble before her in Sirara.
The true stone for weighing silver, the setting up the true basket,
235 the peck of true word she presents to all lands.
The shepherd, leader of the land, … of the provinces,
Ishtaran who lives for straight judgments in the land,
… Ningishzida …
250 My lady, your divine powers are great divine powers, are surpassing [ (other) divine powers].
Nanshe, your divine powers are not matched by any other divine powers.
King An looks on with joy.
He who sits with Enlil on the dais of destiny determination,
Father Enki, has determined your destiny.
255 Nanshe, child born in Eridu, to praise you is good.
REFERENCES
Text: Heimpel 1981a. Translations and Studies: Jacobsen 1987a:125–142; Charpin 1986; Gomi and Sigrist 1991:81–95; ELS; KKU.
THE BLESSING OF NISABA BY ENKI (1.163)
(NIN-MUL-AN-GIM)
William W. Hallo
This hymn in honor of Enki, “the crafty god” (Kramer and Maier 1989), seems to commemorate his blessing of Nisaba, perhaps on the occasion of her (annual?) visit, in the guise of her statue, to his sanctuary at Eridu. As the personification of both reed and grain, Nisaba was patron-goddess of both scribal art and agriculture, and both characteristics are celebrated in this hymn.
Oh lady, shining like the stars of Heaven, holding the lapis lazuli tablet,
Nisaba, born in the great sheepfold by the divine Earth,
Wild kid nourished (as) on good milk with pure vegetation,
Mouth-opened by the seven flutes, a
(5) Perfected with (all) the fifty great divine attributes.
Oh my lady, the most powerful one in the Ekur —
Dragon, emerging brightly on the festival
Mother-goddess of the nation, biting off a piece from the clay,b
Pacifying the habitat with cool water,
(10) Providing the foreign land with plenty,
Born in wisdom by the great mountain (Enlil),
Righteous woman, chief scribe of Heaven (An), record-keeper of Enlil,
All-knowing sage of the gods —
In order to make grain and vegetables grow in the furrow,
(15) So that the excellent corn can be marvelled at,
That is, to provide for the seven great throne-daises
By making vegetables shoot forth, making grain shoot forth,
At harvest, the great festival of Enlil,
She in her great princely role has verily cleansed (her) body,
(20) Has verily put the holy priestly garment on (her) torso.
In order to establish oblations where none existed,
And to pour forth great libations of wine
So as to appease X, to appease End[agara],
To appease merciful Kusu and Ezina,
(25) She will appoint a great high-priest, will appoint a festival,
Will appoint a great high-priest of the nation.
Oh virgin Nisaba, he blesses you in prayer.
He has verily prepared the pure oblation,
Has verily opened the House of Learning of Nisaba,
(30) Has verily placed the lapis lazuli tablet on (her) knee.
Taking counsel with the holy tablet of the heavenly stars,
(As) in Aratta he has placed Ezagin at her disposal,
Eresh he has constructed in abundance.
She is created out of pure little bricks,
(35) She is granted wisdom in the highest degree.
In the Abzu, c the great crown (?) of Eridu, (where) sanctuaries are apportioned,
[In …], (where) offices (?) are apportioned,
The great princely plowman of the resplendent temple, the craftsman of Eridu,
The king of lustrations, the lord of the mask of the great high-priest, Enki —
(40) The Engur-house when he occupies it,
The Abzu of Eridu when he builds it,
The Halanku when he takes counsel in it,
The house of the box-tree when he fells it,
The sage when his hair is loosened behind him, d
(45) The House of Learning when he opens it,
The door of learning when he stands in its street,
The great kettle-drum of cedar when he finishes (?) it,
The … of date-palm when he perfects (var. holds) it
The drum of … when he strikes it with the … —
(50) On Nisaba, the great …, he invokes seven [blessings (?)]:
Oh Nisaba, (be) a righteous woman, a good woman, a woman born in the mountain!
Oh Nisaba, in the stall may you be the fat! In the pen may you be the milk!
In the treasure-house may you be the keeper of the seal!
In the palace may you be the honest steward!
(55) May you heap up grain-piles (as large as) a mound, grain-piles (as small as) a māšu-measure!
For the fact that a blessing was invoked on Nisaba by the Prince,
Oh father Enki, your praise is sweet!
REFERENCES
Text: Hallo 1970a. Translations and studies: Hallo 1970a; Alster 1976:119 and n. 31; Selz, 1989:495.
3. PRAYERS AND LETTER-PRAYERS
LETTER-PRAYER OF KING SIN-IDDINAM TO NIN-ISINA (1.164)
William W. Hallo
The genre of letter-prayer combines the format of a letter with the function of a prayer. It is attested first for private petitions in Sumerian, and then developed into a royal mode of communication with the divine, as here. Later examples of the genre occur in Akkadian and perhaps even in Hebrew, notably the “writing” or “letter” of Hezekiah in Isaiah 38. Like that letter, this one is concerned with royal illness; it is addressed to the healing goddess called “lady of Isin,” patron deity of the kingdom of Isin, by a king of its chief rival, the kingdom of Larsa.
To Nin-isina, beloved daughter of lofty An (Heaven),
mistress of Egalmah, speak!a
To the chair-bearer of the Orient,
the counselor of the netherworld,
The beloved (chief) wife of the warrior Pabilsag,
the senior daughter-in-law of Ki’ur,
The senior record-keeper of An and Enlil,
proudest of goddesses,
(5) Who perfects the attributes of Duranki in Nippur,
Who makes their exaltation appear in Egalmah,
the house of her queenship,
Who has founded (in) Larak the Enigingar (and) the (E)ashte,
the Esabad and the Esasumma,
Great healer whose incantation is life,
whose spells restore the sick man,
Mother of the nation, merciful one,
who loves prayer and supplication,
(10) My lady, say furthermore to her —
This is what Sin-iddinam, the king of Larsa, your servant, says:
Since the day of my birth, after you spoke to Utu
(and) he gave me the shepherdship over his nation,
I do not neglect my duties, I myself have been unable to sleep sweetly,
I have sought health (in vain?).
For the gods greatly in my worship
(15) I perform prayers and sacrifices,
I have withheld nothing from them.
(But) Asarluhi spends time (with) the king of Babylon,
the son of Ilurugu (the Ordeal-River) with […].
Their city against my city daily overruns the land,
Their king seeks out the king of Larsa as an evildoer.
(Though) I, not being the shepherd over their nation,
have not coveted (?) their sacrifices,
(20) A young man stationed himself at my feet at night
in the guise of a dream,
He stood at my head, I myself saw his terrible glance,
Carrying a river-oar (?), having cast a spell most evilly.
Since that day, my manhood is not in order,
his hand has seized me.
There is no escaping from my fears by myself,
I am seized by an evil sickness.
(25) My sickness is an unlit darkness, not visible to man.
The physician will not look upon it,
will not s[oothe?] it with a bandage.
The exorcists will not recite the spell,
assuredly my sickness has no diagnosis.
My sickness: its (healing) herb has not sprouted forth
on plain (or) mountain, no one gets it for me.
Healing my sickness is with you (alone),
let me declare your exaltation:
(30) “As my [mother] has abandoned me since my childhood,
I am one who has no [mother],
no one recites my lament to you,
you are my mother!
Except [for you], I do not have another personal goddess,
no one pleads for mercy to you on my behalf.
No one seeks [for mercy?] from you for me,
you are my personal goddess!”
I am verily your constable (and) dog,
I do not cease from being tied to you.
(35) Damu, your beloved son:
I am verily his private soldier (and) weapon holder,
May you plead for mercy for me before him!
My sickness has been changed into (worse) sickness,
one does not know how to rectify it.
At midday I cannot be given any sustenance,
by night I cannot sleep.
May you be my very own mot[her?], holy Ninisina,
merciful lady!
(40) With my not sleeping,
let me bring my wailing to you at night:
“Let me behold your favorable glance,
give me sweet life!
[As for me], like a bird fleeing from a falcon,
I am seeking to save my life.
As for me, let me enter your lap in the face of Death,
save me from (its) hand!
I am a young man, I set up lamentation in the face of Death,
my life ebbs away from me.”
(45) Like a mother-cow, have mercy on me!
Like a […], have mercy on me!
Like the mother who bore me,
who verily took me from the womb (?),
have mercy on me!
Hear the …, (you who are) ill disposed toward the.…
Damu, your beloved son,
the great healer of Enlil,
(50) He knows the plant of life,
he knows the water of life.
[…] the command of the god who created me,
who [can change? it] against you?
Asarluhi, the son of Ilurugu, has verily spoken:
“Let him live!”
The body of the letter includes a long complaint about the plague which has ravaged Larsa for seven (variant: five) years, protests the king’s innocence and cultic fastidiousness, contrasts it with the godlessness of the Shimashkians from Iran who for all that have been spared, and prays for deliverance.
REFERENCES
Text: OECT 5:30 and duplicates. Translations and studies: Hallo 1976; Keller 1991; Michalowski 1988.
LETTER-PRAYER OF KING SIN-IDDINAM TO UTU (1.165)
William W. Hallo
Like the preceding letter-payer, this one is written (as if) by Sin-iddinam, king of Larsa (ca. 1849–1843 BCE) to complain about illness and seek relief. But unlike the former, this one (a) deals with collective illness, (b) addresses Utu, the patron-deity of the dynasty, and (c) survives into Middle Babylonian times in a copy from Emar (Arnaud 1991 No. 101) and into neo-Assyrian times in a copy from Nineveh. The latter substitutes Babylon for Larsa and a royal name, now lost, for Sin-iddinam, and it is a bilingual, i.e., it adds an interlinear translation into Akkadian. But it remains recognizably the old text, and provides at least a chronological bridge to the comparable Biblical genre.
To Utu, my king, lord, senior judge of Heaven and Earth,
Protector of the nation who renders verdicts,
Righteous god who loves to preserve people alive, who hears prayer,
Long on mercy, who knows clemency,
(5) Loving justice, choosing righteousness – speak!
To the bearded son of Ningal,
(who) wears a lapis lazuli beard,
Opener of the locks of Heaven and Earth,
who makes the dark places bright,
Lord who alone is a resplendent leader,
whose exaltation is unequalled,
Warrior, son born by Ningal,
who guards and gathers together the divine
attributes,
(10) Righteous god, prince who determines all fates,
father of the black-headed ones —
say furthermore!
This is what Sin-iddinam, the king of Larsa, your servant, says.
REFERENCES
Text: OECT 5:25:15–58 and duplicates. Translations and studies: Arnaud 1991:No. 101; Borger 1991; Civil 1996; Hallo 1982; Heimpel 1986.
4. LAMENTATIONS
LAMENTATION OVER THE DESTRUCTION OF UR (1.166)
Jacob Klein
Out of the five early Sumerian lamentations hitherto published, two laments commemorate the destruction of Ur, the capital of the Ur III empire. The Third Dynasty of Ur fell in the reign of Ibbi-Sin, its fifth king (ca. 2028–2004 BCE), as a result of a joint attack by the Elamites from the east and the Amorites from the west. The laments were composed not long after the events they record, probably at the initiative of one of the early kings of the Isin Dynasty, which inherited the hegemony over Sumer and began restoring the former capital. The purpose of these laments most probably was to soothe the heart of the city-god, Nanna, so that he allow the restoration his temple, an undertaking which involved the razing and removal of the ruins of the old temple. The laments also were intended to ensure that the god would prevent the recurrence of the disaster in the future.
The First Ur Lament, parts of which are translated below, seems to have been dedicated to Ninlil, the wife of the city-god Nanna, for she is the dominant figure in the composition: She is pleading for her city in the divine assembly, where its destruction has been decreed; and she laments over it after its destruction. The Second Ur Lament,3 on the other hand, seems to have been dedicated to the city god, Nanna, for in this poem he is the dominant hero; he pleads for his city to his father, Enlil, in the divine assembly, and when he is informed that his city is doomed, he abandons it, and enables the enemy to take over.
The First Ur Lament is a 436-line long, beautiful poem, divided into eleven cantos. It opens with the enumeration of the major cities and temples of the land which were abandoned by their respective gods and devastated (Canto 1). Subsequently, the poet addresses the city, uttering a bitter lament over it (Canto 2). Next, the goddess Ningal is introduced, pleading for her city to her husband, Nanna, and to the heads of the pantheon. In her plea she complains that the supreme gods, An and Enlil, doomed her city to destruction and refused to heed her prayer and to take back their decision (Cantos 3–4). At this point, the poet describes the invasion of Sumer by the enemy. On the mythological level, the enemy is described as a merciless “storm” sent by Enlil to destroy the city and annihilate its inhabitants; on the mundane level, we are informed of the attack of the people of Simashki and Elam, who tore down the city and the temple with their axes, slew or exiled its inhabitants, despoiled its treasures and disrupted its economic and cultural life (Cantos 5–6). Ningal flees from her temple like a bird flying away from her ravaged nest, and continues to lament over the city and its people, whom she calls “my beloved children” (Canto 7). Here the poet utters a call to Ningal to return to her abandoned city and temple, and to appeal again to the chief gods to stop the destruction and to put an end to the people’s suffering (Canto 8). The lamentation ends with a passionate prayer to Nanna, the city god, that he return to his city and temple, and restore its ruins; that he accept favorably the offerings of the people and purify their hearts; and that he make sure that the destructive “storm” may never come back (Cantos 9–11).5
The Gods of Sumer Abandon their Temples (lines 1–6; 13–16; 37–39)
He has abandoned his stable,
his sheepfold (became) haunted,7
The wild ox has abandoned his stable,
his sheepfold (became) haunted,
The lord of all lands has abandoned it,
his sheepfold (became) haunted,
Enlil has abandoned the shrine (of) Nippur,
his sheepfold (became) haunted;
(5) His consort, Ninlil, has abandoned it,
her sheepfold (became) haunted,
Ninlil has abandoned their house, the Kiur,
her sheepfold (became) haunted …
Nanna has abandoned Ur,
his sheepfold (became) haunted,
Suen has abandoned the Ekishnugal,12
his sheepfold (became) haunted;
(15) His consort, Ningal, has abandoned it,
her sheepfold (became) haunted,
Ningal has abandoned her Agrunkug,
her sheepfold (became) haunted …
Antiphone:
(37) His sheepfold became haunted,
he is grievously groaning over it.
O cow, your lowing does not sound any more
in the stable, the stable does not
cause (?) joy (?) to the Prince!
Ningal Pleads for her City to An and Enlil (lines 137–151; 162–172)
“On that day, when that storm
had pounded again and again,
When in the presence of the lady
her city was destroyed,
On that day, when the storm had done (?)
it (?) again and again,
(140) When they ordered the utter
destruction of my city,
When they ordered the utter
destruction of Ur,
When they gave instructions
that its people be killed —
On that day, I verily did not
forsake my city,
I verily did not neglect my Land;
(145) Truly I shed my tears before An,
Truly, I myself uttered supplication
before Enlil:
‘May the city not be destroyed!’
I said indeed to them,
‘May Ur not be destroyed!’
I said indeed to them,
‘May an end not be put to its people!’
I said indeed to them.
(150) But An never changed that word,
Enlil never soothed my heart with that
‘It is good; so be it!’ …
Verily they gave instructions
that my city be utterly destroyed,
Verily they gave instructions
that Ur be utterly destroyed,
Verily they decreed its destiny
that its people be killed.
(165) Me — in return for that
I gave them my food —
Me they verily also lumped with my city,
My Ur they verily also lumped with me.
An is never to change his word,
Enlil is never to alter
the word he utters!”
Antiphone:
Her city has been destroyed in her face,
her offices were alienated from her!
The Aftermath of the Destructive Storm (lines 208–228; 240–246)
On that day, the storm was removed from
the city, and that city was in ruins.
O father Nanna, from that city,
all in ruins, it was removed —
the people groan!
(210) On that day, the storm was removed from the Land, and that city was in ruins!
Its people like potsherds
littered its sides.
In its walls breaches were made –
the people groan!
In its high gates where they were wont to
promenade, corpses were piled,
In its boulevards, where feasts were
celebrated, heads lay in heaps (?),
(215) In its streets, where they were wont to
promenade, corpses were piled,
In its places where the country’s dances
took place, people were stacked in heaps.
The Land’s blood filled all holes
like copper or tin,
Their dead bodies melted away
of themselves, like sheep
fat left in the sun.
Its men who were slain with
the axe, (their) heads were
not covered with a cloth.
(220) Like gazelles caught in a trap,
(their) mouths bit the dust.
Its men whom the spear had struck down
were not bound with bandages,
As if in the place where their
mother gave birth to them,
they lay in their blood.
Its men who were brought to end
by the battle-mace, were not
bandaged with new (?) cloth
Although they were not beer drinkers,
they drooped neck over shoulder.
(225) He who stood up to the weapon,
was crushed by the weapon
— the people groan!
He who ran away from it,
was overwhelmed (?) by the storm
— the people groan!
In Ur weak and strong
both perished in the famine,
The old men and old women,
who could not leave the house,
were consumed by fire …
(240) In the storehouses, abounding
in the land, fires were lit,
In its ponds, Gibil,23 the purifier,
relentlessly did (his) work.
The lofty, untouchable mountain,
the Ekishnugal —
Its faithful house is entirely
devoured by large axes.
The people of Simashki and Elam,
the wreckers, counted its worth
thirty shekels.
(245) They tear down the faithful house
— the people groan!
They make the city a mound of ruins
— the people groan!
Ningal’s Lament over her Ruined City (lines 254–274; 278–291)
Mother Ningal, like an enemy,
stands outside her city;
(255) The woman bitterly laments
over her ravaged house,
The princess bitterly laments
over her ravaged shrine (of) Ur:
“An has verily cursed my city,
my city has verily been
destroyed before me!
Enlil has verily changed (the destiny)
of my house, it has verily been
smitten by pickaxes!
On my ones coming from the south he
verily hurled fire; alas, my city
has verily been destroyed before me!
(260) Enlil — on my ones coming from
the north he verily hurled flames!
Outside the city, the outskirts of the city
were verily destroyed before me;
let me cry ‘Alas, my city!’
Inside the city, the inner city was
verily destroyed before me;
let me cry ‘Alas, my house!’ …
(265) My city no more multiplied
for me like a fecund ewe,
its faithful shepherd is gone,
Ur no more multiplied for me like a
fecund ewe, its shepherd boy is gone,
My ox no more crouches in its stable,
gone is its oxherd,
My sheep no more crouches in its sheepfold,
gone is its herdsman.
In the river of my city dust has gathered,
it has verily been made into foxholes,
(270) In its midst no flowing water is carried,
its tax-collector is gone.
In the fields of my city there is no grain,
their farmer is gone,
My fields, like fields devastated (?) by the hoe,
have verily grown tangled (?) weed,
My orchards and gardens, full of honey and wine,
have verily grown mountain thorn.
My plain, covered with its luxurious verdure,
have become verily parched like an ovens …
(275) My silver, gems and lapis-lazuli
have verily been scattered about
— let me cry: ‘O my possessions!’
My treasures the swamp
has verily swallowed up
— let me cry: ‘O my possessions!’
(280) My silver – men who had never known silver
have verily filled their hands with it,
My gems — men who had never known gems
have verily hung them around their necks.
My birds and fowl have verily flown away
— let me cry: ‘Alas, my city!’
My daughters and sons have verily been
carried off as captives in ships
— let me cry: ‘Alas, my city!’ …
[Woe is me! My city] which ceased to exist
— I am no longer its queen,
(285) [Nanna], Ur which ceased to exist
— I am no longer its queen!
Upon the ruins into which my house
verily has been made, upon my city
which has verily been destroyed,
I, the faithful woman – in place of my city
a strange city verily has been built.
(290) Upon the ruins, into which my city
verily has been made, upon my house
which has verily been destroyed,
I, Ningal – in place of my house
a strange house verily has been built!
Curse against the Destructive ‘Storm’ (lines 388–392; 400–417)
Woe! Storm after storm swept the Land together.
The great storm of heaven, the ever roaring storm,
(390) The malicious storm which swept through the Land —
The city-ravaging storm, the house-ravaging storm,
The stable-ravaging storm,
the sheepfold-burning storm …
(400) The storm which knows no mother,
the storm which knows no father —
The storm which knows no wife,
the storm which knows no child —
The storm which knows no sister,
the storm which knows no brother —
The storm which knows no neighbor,
the storm which knows no confidant —
The storm which caused the wife to be abandoned,
the storm which caused the child to be abandoned
(405) The storm which caused the Land to perish —
The storm which swept (through the Land)
at Enlil’s hateful command —
O Father Nanna, may that storm
swoop down no more upon your city,
May your black-headed people
not see (?) it (?) (again)!
May that stormy day, like rain pouring
down from heaven, never recur!
(410) That which smote all living beings of
heaven and earth, the black-headed people,
That storm — may it be entirely destroyed!
Like the great city-gate at night,
may the door be closed tight on it!
May that stormy-day not be placed
in the reckoning,
May its number be taken down
from the peg in Enlil’s Temple!w
Antiphone:
Unto distant days, other days,
to the end of the days!
Concluding Penitential Prayer to Nanna (lines 418–424; 430–436)
From days of yore, when the Land was founded,
O Nanna, the humble men,
who lay hold of your feet,
(420) Have brought to you their tears
over the silenced temple, their
chanting (intoned) before you;
May your black-headed people,
who have been cast away,
make obeisance to you,
In your city, which has been made into ruins,
may a wail be set up unto you!
O Nanna, may your restored city
radiate before you,
Like a bright heavenly star,
may it never be destroyed,
may it (always) walk in your sight!…
(430) May (your) heart relent toward ‘the man’
who uttered a prayer for it!
And having looked faithfully upon
the ‘man of supplication’
who stands here for it,
O Nanna, (you) whose penetrating
gaze searches the bowels,
May the hearts of its people
that committed evil,
be purified before you!
May the hearts of your (people)
who dwell in the land be good to you!
O Nanna, in your city again restored,
may (your) praise be sung!
REFERENCES
Cohen 1981; 1988; Falkenstein and von Soden 1953:192–213; Green 1975; 1978; 1984; Gwaltney 1983; Hallo 1995; Hillers 1992:XXVIII-XXVIX; Jacobsen 1987a:447–477; Kramer 1940; 1991; Kraus 1968:8–13; Krecher 1980–83; McDaniel 1968; Michalowski 1989.
5. INCANTATIONS
A “NON-CANONICAL” INCANTATION (1.167)
William W. Hallo
Incantations were among the earliest literary genres to be fixed in writing. Before they were collected into major canonical series, they circulated in individual formulations, as needed. Sometimes, as here, these were quite short, and to the point, even specifying the source of the problem by name. The name of the client who used the spell was inserted at the appropriate point. The concern here is with the perennial problem of improper burial of a deceased person, which exposed his survivors to the danger of his ghost coming back to haunt them and — worse — to cause them to fall sick.
Moving about by day (?) like a cow
in the midst of heaven, a fire (?) rained down from above,
Lu-Sukkal, son of Gudea,
descended alive into the midst of the watery deep. a
(5) “Let me not be made to descend!”
let him not say before Utu!
Let him not be one who returns to me!
Of So-and-so son of So-and-so
whose (personal) god is Enki,
(10) and whose personal goddess is Geshtinanna —
Let him not afflict the stomach!
Conjuration, spell,
incantation against colic.
REFERENCES
Text: Gurney and Kramer OECT 5 (1976) No. 20. Translations and studies: Scheil 1927; Gurney and Kramer OECT 5 (1976) 31f.; Kutscher 1982.
FROM “EVIL SPIRITS” (1.168)
W. W. Hallo
The formation of systematic (“canonical”) series of incantations began as early as Old Babylonian times in the case of the “Evil Spirits” (UDUG-HUL = utukku lemnūtu). Again, the concern was with improper burial and its baneful consequences. The present example is a brief incantation out of a reconstruction of second millennium forerunners running to nearly 1000 lines, and these in turn are vastly exceeded in size by the canonical versions of the first millennium.
Oh evil spirit, ghost appearing in the desert,
Oh Namtar, when you touch something evil,
Oh tongue which in its malice binds a man to you,
May you be broken like a pitcher, may you be split like a measuring vessel!
(5) May you not cross through the door-frame or over the door-sill!
May you not cross over the threshold (?)!
Oh evil spirit, to your desert!
Oh evil apparition, to your desert!
Oh (good?) spirit dwelling in the house, …
Oh personal deity,
(10) May the evil spirit and the evil apparition, like (sherds of) the potter’s burzi-bowl, be smashed in the square!
It is an incantation of the evil spirit.
REFERENCES
Text: PBS I/2:128 ii 8–22. Translations and studies: Falkenstein 1931:87–89; Geller 1985:48–51, 511–522.
6. LOVE POEMS
DUMUZI-INANNA SONGS (1.169)
Yitschak Sefati
The three poems translated below belong to the Sumerian love poetry composed during the Third Dynasty of Ur and early Old Babylonian periods (ca. 2100–1800 BCE). This poetry which is mainly cultic deals with the love affair and marriage of the divine couple, the gods of love and fertility, Dumuzi (the Sumerian name for Tammuz) and Inanna (the Sumerian name for Ishtar). This symbolic marriage commonly known as the “sacred marriage rite” (hieros gamos) was believed, according to the Sumerian mythographers and poets, to bring about the fertility of the soil and the fecundity of the womb. It took place, apparently, during the New Year festival. The king, representing Dumuzi, wedded one of the priestesses of high rank, representing Inanna, the alluring fertility goddess. The questions whether the rite took place annually or only occasionally, and who actually represented Inanna during the celebration, remain unanswered.
As in most of Sumerian poetic works, the following poems are ascribed to their appropriate categories by the ancient poets themselves with a special subscript at the end of the composition, resembling the superscript of the biblical psalter. The first two poems are each designated as a “BALBALE (of Inanna)”; the exact meaning of this designation is still unknown, but it seems to indicate that these poems were to be recited, perhaps antiphonally, and heard during certain court or temple festivities. The third poem is designated as TIGI (“kettledrum”), a drum-accompanied hymn; it is subdivided into two sections bearing the labels SA-GÍD-DA and SA-G̃AR-RA, which seem to refer to the tightening or loosening of the skin of the percussion instruments or, if string instruments are involved, to the tuning of the strings (Sumerian SA).
THE WOMEN’S OATH (1.169A)
This poem may be divided into two parts. The first and shorter part (lines 1–12) is in the form of an address (written in the main dialect of Sumerian called Emegir) by Dumuzi to Inanna, the “sister,” consisting of epithets of endearment for his beloved. The second part (lines 13–32, written in the Emesal-dialect of Sumerian) consists of Inanna’s response, the main point of which is asking her lover to swear that he had no love affairs with other women. The oath is administered by Dumuzi, placing his right hand on her genitals, laying his left hand on her head, bringing his mouth close to her mouth and taking her lips into his mouth. The poem concludes with the same motif with which it began, i.e., the metaphoric description of the beloved. But this time it is Inanna who extols her lover’s charms.
Lover (lines 1–12)
My lubi, my lubi, my lubi,
My labi, my labi, my honey of the mother who bore her,
My sappy vine, my honey–sweet, my mellifluous mouth of her mother.
Your eyes — their gaze delights me, come my beloved sister!d
(5) Your mouth — its utterance delights me, my honey-sweet mellifluous mouth of her mother,
Your lips — their kiss delights me, come my beloved sister!
My sister, your barley — its beer is delicious, my mellifluous mouth of her mother,
Your wort — its liquor (?) is delicious, come my beloved sister!
In the house — your charms [are irresistible], my mellifluous mouth of her mother,
(10) Your charms, my sister, [are irresistible …] my beloved,
Your house — the storeho[use …], m[y mellifluous] mouth of her mother,
You, the Princess … my …
Girl (lines 13–32)
(You) who gave me life, (you) who gave me life, you will take an oath to me,
Brother of the open country, (you) who gave me life, you will take an oath to me,
(15) You will take an oath to me that you did not lay hands on an alien (woman),
You will take an oath to me that you did not […] (your) head on an alien (woman).
My one who dons (?) the fine garment for me,
My beloved, the man of [my heart],
[I will make you] take an oath, oh my brotherg of [beautiful ey]es!
(20) My brother, I will make you take an oath, oh my brother of beautiful eyes!
Your right hand on my nakedness should be placed, h
Your left on my head should be laid;
When you have brought your mouth close to my mouth,
When you have seized my lips in your mouth,
(25) By so (doing) you will take an oath to me,
Thus is the “oath (?) of the women,” oh my brother of beautiful eyes!
My blossoming one, my blossoming one, sweet is your allure!
My blossoming garden of apple trees, sweet is your allure!
My fruitful garden of celtis–trees, sweet is your allure!
(30) My (?) “Dumuzi–abzu by his own virtue” (?), sweet is your allure!
My pure figurine, my pure figurine, sweet is your allure!
Alabaster figurine, adorned with the lapis lazuli diadem, sweet is your allure!
(It is a BALBALE–song of Inanna)
BRIDEGROOM, SPEND THE NIGHT IN OUR HOUSE TILL DAWN (1.169B)
This poem is a monologue by King Shu-Sin’s beloved in which she yearns for him with words of love and expresses her longing for him in requests and wishes. At the conclusion of the song (lines 27–29) there is apparently an invitation to sexual union but in language not adequately clear to us.
Bridegroom of my heart, [my beloved] one,
Your allure is a sweet thing, [is as sweet as] honey;
Dear (?) of my heart, my beloved one,
Your allure is a sweet thing, is as sweet as honey.
(5) You have captivated (?) me, of my own will (?) I will come to you,
Bridegroom, let me run after you to the couch;
You have captivated (?) me, of my own will (?) I will come to you,
Dear (?), let me run after you to the couch.
Bridegroom, I will do to you all the sweet things,
(10) My precious sweet, honey I will bring (?) to you,
In the bedchamber dripping with honey —
Let us enjoy your sweet allure, the sweet things!
Dear (?), I will do to you all the sweet things,
My precious sweet, honey I will bring (?) to you.
(15) Bridegroom, you who have fallen in love with me,
Speak to my mother, (and) I shall offer myself to you,
(Speak) to my father, he will give (me to you) as a gift.
Soothing the reins, the place which soothes the reins, I know,
Bridegroom, spend the night in our house till dawn.
(20) Of your heart, its place which gladdens the heart, I know,
Dear (?), spend the night in our house till dawn.
You, since you have fallen in love with me,
Dear (?), if only you would do to me your sweet things!
The lord my god, the lord my guardian–angel,
(25) My Shu-sin, who cheers Enlil‘s heart,
If only you would do to me your sweet things(!)!
Your “place” (is) sweet as honey — if only you would lay hand on it!
Lay (your) hand upon it for me like a cap (?) on a measuring cup,
Spread (?) (your) hand over it for me like a cap (?) on an old measuring cup.
(It is a BALBALE–song of Inanna)
LOVE BY THE LIGHT OF THE MOON (1.169C)
This poem is a dialogue between Inanna and Dumuzi/Ama-ushumgalanna, who woo each other as a young couple prior to their marriage.
The song opens with Inanna’s monologue, in which she tells of her chance meeting with Dumuzi and about Dumuzi holding her hand and embracing her (obverse lines 1–8) when spending the previous day in song and dance. Then a dialogue with Dumuzi develops (obverse lines 9–22): Inanna, who is unusually portrayed here as a young and inexperienced maiden, pleads with Dumuzi to let her go home. Apparently she feared the angry reaction of her mother, Ningal, when the latter would realize that she had spent the night away from home in the company of a stranger. Dumuzi, who is revealed here as an enterprising suitor, teaches her “women’s deceits”; in other words, he plants deceitful words in her mouth intended to justify her tardiness. Thus they will be able to make love together all night by moonlight. The beginning of the second part (obv. 24 – rev. 3) is highly fragmentary, and we do not know what happened between the couple. One cannot tell whether Inanna responded to Dumuzi’s courting or whether, as is more likely, she refused to acquiesce to him like a prostitute, standing in the street. Instead she invited him to her home so that he would properly ask for her hand. When the text becomes intelligible (rev. 4–7), Inanna expresses the wish that Dumuzi turn aside to the gate of her mother Ningal’s house where she, too, will joyfully run. Similarly, she expresses a wish (rev. 8–11) that her mother be informed of Dumuzi’s arrival so that she would prepare the house for receiving this important guest and sprinkle water on the floor. The song concludes with praise (rev. 14–21), presumably by Inanna’s mother, Ningal, for Dumuzi, the future son–in–law. She calls him “the son–in–law of Sin,” who makes plants grow abundantly in the plain, and hence he is fit and worthy of Inanna’s pure lap. It should be noted that but for the liturgical annotations therein, we would assume it to be a song of purely secular, literary character that was not connected with any cultic ritual but which served as a diverting song for women, to be hummed while they were spinning or weaving or engaged in other chores, in order to while away the time.
Inanna (obverse lines 1–12)
As I, the lady, was passing the day yesterday,
As I, Inanna, was passing the day yesterday,
As I was passing the day, as I was dancing about,
As I was singing songs (from) morning till evening —
(5) He met me, he met me,
The lord, the companion of An met me,
The lord seized me in his hands,
Ushumgalanna embraced me.
“Wild bull (?), set me free, that I may go home!
(10) Companion of Enlil, set me free, that I may go home!
What can I set before my mother as false words?
What can I set before my mother, Ningal, as false words?”
Dumuzi (obverse lines 13–22)
“Let me teach you, let me teach you!
Inanna, let me teach you the women‘s false words:
(15) ‘My girlfriend was dancing with me in the square,
She ran around with me, playing the tambourine and the recorder,
Her chants, being sweet, she sang for me,
In rejoicing, being sweet, I passed the day there with her’ —
This as false words you set before your own mother,
(20) As for us — let me make love with you by the moonlight!
Let me loosen your combs on the pure and luxuriant couch!
May you pass there a sweet day with me in abundance and joy!”
(It is the sagidda)
Inanna (obverse lines 24 – reverse 13)
… I, the maid (?), in the alleys (?) …
(25) With the [wild bu]ll (?), by day, I …,
(about eleven lines of the obverse and the first three lines of the reverse are broken away)
He is indeed standing at our mother‘s gate,
(5) I, in joy I am running around;
He is indeed standing at Ningal’s gate,
I, in joy I am running around.
Oh, that someone would tell my mother!
May our neighbor sprinkle water on the floor!
(10) Oh, that someone would tell my mother, Ningal!
May our neighbor sprinkle water on the floor!
Her dwelling! — its fragrance is sweet,
Her words (will) be joyful ones:
Ningal, Inanna’s mother (lines 14–21)
“My lord is seemly for the holy lap,
(15) Amaushumgalanna, the son–in–law of Sin,
The lord Dumuzi is seemly for the holy lap,
Amaushumgalanna, the son–in–law of Sin.
My lord, how sweet is your abundance!
How tasty are your herbs and plants in the plain!
(20) Amaushumgalanna, how sweet is your abundance!
How tasty are your herbs and plants in the plain!”
(It is the sagarra. It is a tigi–song of Inanna)
REFERENCES
Alster 1985; 1993b; Civil 1990a; Jacobsen 1975; 1976; 1987a; 1987b; Kramer 1952; 1963; 1969c; Sefati 1985; 1990; Wilcke 1970.
B. ROYAL FOCUS
1. EPIC
ENMERKAR AND THE LORD OF ARATTA (1.170)
Thorkild Jacobsen
The story of Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta begins in legendary times, before many of the inventions of civilization — such as written communication by letter. Enmerkar ruled in Uruk as “priest-king” (EN), and was the human husband of Inanna, with whom he united yearly in the rite of the sacred marriage. The lord of Aratta ruled in the fabled city of Aratta which lay in the mountains far away to the east. He also was the spouse of Inanna with the responsibilities for the city’s prosperity. But Inanna, we are told loved Enmerkar best.
Enmerkar used this to his advantage in attempting to force the submission of Aratta and the provision of precious stones and other building materials for a temple in Uruk. A drought was brought on the land of Aratta by Inanna. The lord of Aratta, after realizing his dilemma, challenged Enmerkar intellectually. Although the lord of Aratta posed a series of seemingly insurmountable problems, Enmerkar solved them each time. In one particular instance, when his message was too long for his envoy’s memory, Enmerkar invented the letter for his envoy to take with him to Aratta. By accident, however, Ishkur (Inanna’s brother) happened to bring rain to Aratta which ended the drought. At this the lord of Aratta celebrated and revealed the miraculous origins of his people. Though somewhat fragmentary, the story ends with Enmerkar listing his achievements.
[lines 1–134, omitted here]
Nudimmud’s Spell (135–155)
Recite Nudimmud’s spell
to him:
“In those days,
there being no snakes,
there being no scorpions,
there being no hyenas,
there being no lions,
there being no dogs or wolves,
there being no (thing) fearful
or hair–raising,
mankind had
no opponents —
in those days
in the countries Subartu,
Hamazi,
bilingual Sumer
being the great country
of princely office,
the region Uri
being a country
in which was
what was appropriate,
the country Mardu
lying in safe pastures,
(in) the (whole) compass
of heaven and earth
the people entrusted (to him)
could address Enlil,
verily, in but a
single tongue.
In those days,
(having) lordly bouts,
princely bouts, and royal bouts —
(did) Enki, (having) lordly bouts,
princely bouts, and royal bouts —
having lordly bouts fought,
having princely bouts fought,
and having royal bouts fought,
(150) did Enki, lord of abundance,
lord of effective command,
did the lord of intelligence,
the country’s clever one,
did the leader of the gods,
did the sagacious
omen–revealed
lord of Eridu
estrange the tongues
in their mouths
as many as were put there.
The tongues of men
which were one.”
[lines 156–497, omitted here]
The Letter Invented (498)
That day the words
of the lord […]
seated on […]
the seed of princes,
[a mēsu tree (?)]
grown up singly,
were difficult,
their meaning not to fathom,
and, his words being difficult,
the envoy
was unable to render them.
Since the envoy
— his words being difficult —
was unable to render them,
the lord of Kullab
smoothed clay with the hand
and set down the words on it
in the manner of a tablet.
While up to then
there had been no one
setting down words on clay,
now, on that day,
under that sun,
thus it verily
came to be;
the lord of Kullab
set down wo[rds on clay,]
thus it verily
came to be!
The envoy, like a bird,
was beating the wings,
like a wolf
closing in on a buck
he was hurrying
to the kill.
Five mountain ranges,
six mountain ranges,
seven mountain ranges,
he crossed over,
lifted up the eyes,
he was approaching Aratta;
and joyfully he set foot
in Aratta’s courtyard.
His master’s preeminence
he proclaimed,
and was decorously speaking
the words he had by heart,
the envoy was translating them
for the Lord of Aratta:
“It being that your father,
[my] master,
has sent me [to you,]
it being that the lord of Uruk,
and lord of Kullab,
has sent me to you …”
The Lord of Aratta Interrupts
“What is to me
your master’s wo[rds?]
What is to me
what he said further?”
“My master — [what] did he say?
what did he say further?
My master,
[des]cendant (?) of Enlil,
grown as high as […]
abutting […]
the [… of …]
who is outstanding
in lordship and kingship,
Enmerkar, son of Utu,
has given me a tablet.
When the Lord of Aratta
has looked at the clay,
and understood from it
the meaning of the words,
and you have told me
what you have to say to me
about it,
let me unto the scion
wearing a lapis lazuli beard,
unto him who was horn
by his sturdy cow (–mother)
in the highland
of immaculate offices,
unto him who was reared
on Uruk’s soil,
unto him who was suckled
with milk
at a good cow’s udder,
unto him, who befits
lordship in Kullab,
country of great sacred office,
unto Enmerkar,
son of Utu,
in the Eanna close
announce that message,
in his gipāru,
bearing flowers
like the new shoots
of a mēsu tree,
let me report
to my master
the lord of Kullab.”
After thus he had been telling him,
the Lord of Aratta took
the envoy’s piece of clay.
The Lord of Aratta
looked at the clay.
The words were fierce words,
were frowning,
the Lord of Aratta
kept looking
at his piece of clay —
Ishkur Brings Rain
That day
did the crowned lord,
fit for lordship,
Enlil’s son,
Ishkur,
the thunderer
of heaven and earth,
the whirling storm,
the great lion,
see fit to come by.
The mountains were shaking,
the mountain ranges
roaring with him
in laughter.
As they met his awe and [g]lory
the mountain ranges
lifted their heads
in delightful verdure,
and on Aratta’s parched flanks,
in midst the mountains,
wheat was sprouting of itself,
and vines also were sprouting of themselves.
The wheat, that had sprouted of itself,
they [piled] in piles and heaps
and bro[ught] it in
to the Lord of Aratta,
piled it up before him
in Aratta courtyard.
Rains Attributed to Inanna
The Lord of Aratta
took a look at the wheat,
and in front of all his overseers
was twitting the envoy,
the Lord of Aratta
said to the envoy:
“Most magnificently
Inanna,
queen of all lands,
has not abandoned
her home, Aratta,
has not delivered it up
to Uruk
has not abandoned
her lapis lazuli house,
has not delivered it up
to the Eanna close,
has not abandoned
the mountain
of immaculate offices,
has not delivered it up
to Kullab’s brickwork,
has not abandoned
the ornate bed,
has not delivered it up
to the girin–flowered bed,
the lord,
her one of the clean hands,
she has not abandoned,
has not delivered him up
to the lord of Uruk,
to the lord of Kullab!
Aratta, right and left,
has Inanna,
queen of all lands,
surrounded for him
as with the waters
of a mighty
burst of a dam.
Miraculous Origins of Aratta’s People
Its men are men
chosen from out of men,
are men whom Dumuzi
picked out from men,
they carry out
holy Inanna’s commands,
alert champions,
house born slaves of Dumuzi,
they verily are,
Inanna, queen of all lands,
for great love of Dumuzi,
sprinkled them
with the water of life,
and subjected the country
to them.
REFERENCES
Jacobsen 1987a:275–319; 1992.
GILGAMESH AND AKKA (1.171)
Dina Katz
The short narrative describes a conflict between two Mesopotamian cities Kish and Uruk. Akka, the ruler of Kish, demanded of the Urukeans to dig wells. Gilgamesh, Akka’s dependent lord of Uruk, determined to rebel, ignored the advice of Uruk’s assembly of elders and, with the support of his army, freed Uruk from the dominance of Kish and established himself as the independent ruler of Uruk. The copies of this composition, written in Sumerian, date to the Old Babylonian period, and most of them were found in Nippur.
Introduction: Geographical Setting (Lines 1–2)
Akka, the son of Enmebaragesi, sent envoys
From Kish to Gilgamesh, to Uruk.
Gilgamesh Delivers Akka’s Message to the Assembly of Elders and Calls on them to Rebel (Lines 3–8)
Gilgamesh, before the elders of his city
Laid the matter, seeking for words:
(5) “To finish the wells, to finish all the wells of the land,
To finish all the shallow wells of the land,
To finish all the deep wells with hoisting ropes,
Let us not submit to the house of Kish let us smite it with weapons”
The Elders’ Assembly Rejects Gilgamesh’s Decision to Rebel (lines 9–14)
The convoked assembly of his city’s elders
(10) Answered Gilgamesh:
“To finish the wells, to finish all the wells of the land,
To finish all the shallow wells of the land,
To finish all the deep wells with hoisting ropes,
Let us submit to the house of Kish let us not smite it with weapons.”
Gilgamesh Does Not Give up and Turns to the Young, Able–bodied, Men (lines 15–23)
(15) Since Gilgamesh, the lord of Kulaba,
Had placed his trust in Inanna,
He did not take to heart the words of his city’s elders.
Gilgamesh before the able–bodied men of his city again
Laid the matter, seeking for words:
(20) “To finish the wells, to finish all the wells of the land,
To finish all the shallow wells of the land,
To finish all the deep wells with hoisting ropes,
Let us not submit to the house of Kish let us smite it with weapons.”
The Young, Able–bodied, Men Decide to Rebel (line 24–29)
The convoked assembly of his city’s able–bodied men answered Gilgamesh:
(25) “As they say: to stand up, and to sit down,
To protect the king’s son,
And to hold back the donkeys,
Who has breath for that? c
Let us not submit to the house of Kish let us smite it with weapons.
The Able–bodied Men Nominate Gilgamesh as King (Lines 30–39)
(30) Uruk, the handiwork of the gods,
Eanna, the temple descended from heaven
Whose parts the great gods created,
Its great wall standing on the ground (like) a cloud,
Its lofty abode established by An,
(35) They are entrusted to you, you are king and warrior.
One smashing heads, a prince beloved of An,
His coming would inspire such fear
That its (Kish’s) army will dwindle, and scatter in retreat,
And its (Kish’s) men be unable to confront him.”
The Preparations for the War against Kish (Lines 40–47)
(40) Then Gilgamesh, the lord of Kulaba,
His heart rejoiced at the words of his city’s able-bodied men, his spirit brightened.
He said to his servant Enkidu:
“Now let the implements and arms of battle be made ready,
Let the battle mace return to your side,
(45) May they create great fear, terrifying splendor,
That when he comes my great terror overwhelm him,
That his wits become confused and his judgement falter.”
The First Confrontation with the Kishite Army
(Lines 48–59)
Not five days, not ten days had passed,
When Akka, the son of Enmebaragesi, (and his army) laid siege to Uruk.
(50) Uruk’s wits were confused,
And Gilgamesh, the lord of Kulaba,
To its warriors said:
“My warriors, you look alarmed,
(but) let one stout of heart stand up (and say) ‘I will go to Akka.’ ”
(55) Birhurture, his royal bodyguard,
Praised his king (and said):
“I will go to Akka,
That his wits become confused and his judgement falter.”
And Birhurture went out through the city gate.
The Second Confrontation with the Kishite Army (Lines 60–83)
(60) As soon as Birhurture went out through the city gate,
They captured him at the entrance of the gate,
And gave Birhurture a thorough beating.
He was brought before Akka,
And to Akka he spoke,
(65) (but) before he had finished speaking the cup-bearer of Uruk mounted the wall
And peered out over the wall.
Akka saw him,
And said to Birhurture:
“Slave, is that man your king?”
(70) “That man is not my king!
Were that man my king.
Were that his dreadful brow,
Were those his bison eyes,
Were that his lapis lazuli beard,
(75) Were those his delicate fingers,
Would not multitudes be cast down, multitudes be raised,
Would not multitudes be smeared with dust,
And would not all the foreign troops be overwhelmed,
Would the mouths of the land not be filled with dust,
(80) Would the prows of the ships not be cut,
And would Akka, the king of Kish, not be taken captive in the midst of his troops?”
They hit him, they strike him,
And give Birhurture a thorough beating.
The Actual War (Lines 84–99)
After the cup–bearer of Uruk, Gilgamesh climbed up the wall,
(85) The terrifying splendor overwhelmed young and old of Kulaba.
It made the able–bodied men of Uruk take up the battle mace,
And throw wide open the city gate’s doors.
Enkidu went out through the city gate alone,
Gilgamesh peered out over the wall.
(90) When he looked, Akka saw him (and said to Enkidu):
“Slave, is that man your king?”
“That man is indeed my king (Enkidu answered).”
Just as he (Enkidu) said that,
Indeed multitudes were cast down, multitudes were raised,
(95) multitudes were smeared with dust;
And indeed all foreign troops were overwhelmed,
The mouths of the land were filled with dust,
The prows of the ships were cut,
And Akka, the king of Kish, was taken captive in the midst of his troops.
Gilgamesh Acknowledges his Dependence on Akka in the Past (Lines 100–106)
(100) Gilgamesh, the lord of Kulaba,
Said to Akka:
“Akka my lieutenant, Akka my captain,
(102a) <Akka my governor, Akka my general,>
Akka my Army commander,
Akka, you have given me breath, Akka you have given me life,
(105) Akka, you have taken the refugee on your lap,
Akka, you have nourished the fleeing bird with grain.”
Akka Endorses the Independence of Uruk and Gilgamesh its Ruler (Lines 107–114)
(Akka:) “Uruk, the handiwork of the gods,
Its great wall standing on the ground (like) a cloud,
Its lofty abode established by An,
(110) They are entrusted to you. [Repay me m]y favor!”
(Gilgamesh:) “By Utu, I now repay you the former favor.”
He set Akka free (to go) to Kish.
Gilgamesh, lord of Kulaba,
Praising you is sweet.
REFERENCES
Cooper 1981; Edzard 1959; Falkenstein 1966; Heimpel 1981b; Jacobsen 1970a; 1970b; 1987a:345–355. Katz 1987; 1993; Klein 1976; 1983; Kramer 1949; Lambert 1980; Malamat 1963; Michalowski 1982; Römer 1980; Vanstiphout 1986; 1987a.
2. ROYAL HYMNS
THE BIRTH OF SHULGI IN THE TEMPLE OF NIPPUR (1.172)
Jacob Klein
This hymn is part of a rich corpus of Neo-Sumerian “royal hymns” pertaining to Shulgi (ca. 2094–2047 BCE), the second and most important king of the Third Dynasty of Ur. The hymn is dedicated to Enlil, the supreme god of the Sumerian pantheon, and it falls into two main parts: the first part opens with a hymnic praise of Enlil, which is followed by a description of Shulgi’s birth and investiture in the Ekur temple; the second part contains blessings and prayers on behalf of Shulgi and the capital city of Ur, both hailed as generous providers of the temple. A three-line epilogue to the hymn reiterates Shulgi’s selection by Enlil for a good reign.3 The hymn was no doubt composed during Shulgi’s reign, on the occasion of Shulgi’s coronation in Nippur. Subsequently, it may have been put to periodical use in the cult. From the point of view of the history of religion, it is of particular interest that whereas in the first part of the hymn Shulgi is invested with royal insignia, in the second part he fulfills the function of high-priest (EN), offering Enlil and Ninlil their evening meal.
Prologue: Praise to Enlil (lines 1–8)
Enlil, the eminent one, the sovereign (god),
whose utterance is trustworthy,
Nunamnir, the eternal shepherd of the Land,
who hails from the Great Mountain,
The great counselor, the leader of heaven and earth,
who is in control of all the divine offices,
The lord who in accordance with his nobility is laden
with awesome splendor, a perfected heavenly star,
(5) He who takes care of the primeval divine offices,
the choice divine offices, who alone is the lofty god,
The lord, the life-giving light, who guides the multitudes
in a single track, to the whole extent of the earth,
The huge net, spread over heaven and earth,
a rope, stretched over all the lands —
Who ever gave Enlil instructions,
or who ever rivalled him?
The Oracle Predicting Shulgi’s Birth (lines 9–14)
He (= Enlil) uttered a great (statement). What is that
which his heart, “the mighty river,” has carried?
(10) The hidden (?) plans of his holy word
he brought out from the temple.
That matter is a holy matter, it is a pure matter,
it concerns the offices of the Ekur —
The true cornerstone, (embedded) in the bottom of the deep —
something most precious:
“A ‘faithful man’ will rebuild the Ekur
(to earn) a lasting name;
The son of (that) ‘faithful man’ will long hold the scepter,
their throne will not (ever) be overthrown!” b
Shulgi’s Birth (lines 15–20)
(15) To that end, Ashimbabbar “shone” (?) in the Ekur,
He pleaded (?) with his father, Enlil,
he approached (?) the mother who gave (?) birth (?) to him,
In the “good house” made Nanna,
the noble son, (his) request,
(And) the high-priestess gave birth to a “faithful man,”
from (the semen) which had been placed in her womb.
Enlil, the powerful shepherd,
caused the young man to appear,
(20) A child, most suitable for kingship (and) throne-dais —
it was king Shulgi!
Shulgi’s Coronation (lines 21–27)
“A lion’s seed, who provides the ‘highland’ generously,
the belo[ved of Nin]lil,
He who was granted authority in the Ekur,
the king of Ur,
(He of) the radiant heart, the shepherd,
the (protective) spirit of the Land” —
gave (?) him (?) (Enlil) as his good name. c
Enlil chose Shulgi in (his) pure heart,
he entrusted the people to him.
(25) The lead-rope and the staff he hung on his arm —
he is (henceforth) the shepherd of all the lands.
The immutable scepter of Nanna he placed in his hand,
Upon a royal seat, which may not be overthrown,
he let him raise (his) head heavenward.
Shulgi’s Praise of Enlil (lines 28–30)
The day is a blessing, the night is an enchantment,
The Land is a (peaceful) pasture;
Shulgi, the “shepherd of prosperity,” he of the
lasting name, the “king of the festival,”
(30) The mighty one, the seed engendered by
“a faithful man,” praises Enlil.
REFERENCES
Hallo 1963; 1987; Klein 1981a; 1981b; 1987; 1991; Römer 1965; Wilcke 1975:252–262.
THE SACRED MARRIAGE OF IDDIN-DAGAN AND INANNA (1.173)
Thorkild Jacobsen
This hymn was apparently written under Iddin–Dagan, the third king of the dynasty of Isin, for he is mentioned by name in it. It may even be that it was meant for use at the yearly rite of the sacred marriage in which the king took on the identity of the god Ama–ushumgal–anna and as such married Inanna, who was almost certainly incarnated in the reigning queen, as shown by the epithet Nin–egala (k), “queen of the palace,” by which she is called in connection with this rite.
The hymn opens with an address to the goddess as morning and evening star followed, in a second canto, by a statement of her powers of office in heaven, on earth, and in the Apsû. From these introductory matters the hymn then moves, with the third canto, into a description of a monthly ritual victory parade in her honor, celebrating her as warrior and goddess of war.
The parade is made up of cult personnel in her service and groups of guards, both of these groups representing warriors and acting out war games in which they cut themselves and each other with knives. In the parade march also young men in neck stocks representing captives, and young and old women who have curled their hair like harlots. They may represent camp followers or women whose providers have fallen in battle and who have had to turn harlots to survive. Beside the parade, or possibly as part of it, march solid citizens of the town, carrying harps and other implements designed to soothe and pacify the goddess.
The end of the sixth canto leads into a new section praising the goddess in her manifestation as the evening star; as such she marks the end of the workday and the quieting down and going to rest of all, men and animals alike. As they sleep, their dream souls appear before her with their requests, and Inanna discerns who is good, who evil.
With the ninth canto the hymn changes its image of the goddess from evening to morning star, and describes the morning offerings to her by people everywhere. Finally, with the tenth canto she is celebrated as the bride in the new year rite of the sacred marriage, in which the king — here Iddin–Dagan–incarnates the bridegroom, Ama–ushumgal-anna — and she, as mentioned, in all likelihood is embodied in the queen. The preparations for the wedding are described, the setting up and readying of the wedding bed, the bride’s pre–nuptial bath, the consummation of the marriage, and the magnificent wedding banquet the next morning.
The hymn closes with an envoi with repeated praise of the goddess ending “Great she is, and august, in heroism surpassing.”
Proem: Star-rise
The one come forth on high,
the one come forth on high,
I will hail!
The [h]oly one, come forth on high,
I will hail!
The great [queen] of heaven,
Inanna,
I will hail!
The pure torch lit in the sky,
the heavenly light, lighting like day,
the great queen of heaven, Inanna,
I will hail!
The holy one,
queen awe–laden
of the Anunnaki,
noblest one in heaven and earth,
crowned with great horns,
oldest child of the Moon,
Inanna,
I will hail!
(10) Of her grandeur, of her greatness,
of her exceeding nobility,
of her brilliant coming forth
in the evening sky,
of her lighting up in the sky,
a pure torch,
of her stepping up onto the sky
like Moon and Sun,
noted by all lands from south to north,
of the greatness of the holy one of heaven,
to the young lady I will sing!
FIRST PLACE OF COUNTERING
“Her coming forth is (that of) a warrior”
(is its antiphon)
Powers of Office
(20) She likes wandering in the sky,
being truly Heaven’s wild cow,
on earth she is noble, queen of all lands,
in the Deep, in Eridu, she took office,
her father Enki conferred it on her,
laid to her hand lordship and kingship.
With An she has taken her seat
on the great throne dais,
with Enlil she will be making
the decisions for her country.
Monthly, at new moon,
that the offices be carried out properly,
the country’s gods gather unto her.
The great Anunnaki, having bowed to her,
(30) are stepping up for prayer, petition, and plaint,
able to voice unto her
the pleas of all lands,
and Milady decides the country’s cases,
settling them.
[Inanna] makes the decisions
for the country,
having them carried out.
The dark–headed people
are parading before her.
SECOND PLACE OF COUNTERING
Warrior: Monthly Ritual Triumphal Parade
Algar–instruments, silver inwrought,
they are beating for her,
— before holy Inanna, before her eyes,
they are parading —
The great queen of heaven, Inanna,
I will hail!
Holy tambourines and holy kettledrums
they are beating for her,
— before holy Inanna, before her eyes,
they are parading —
The great queen of heaven, Inanna,
I will hail!
Holy harps and holy kettledrums
they are smiting for her,
— before holy Inanna, before her eyes,
they are parading —
The oldest child of the Moon,
Inanna,
I will hail!
THIRD PLACE OF COUNTERING
The guardsmen have combed
(their hair) for her,
— before holy Inanna, before her eyes
they are parading —
they have made colorful for her
the back hair with colored ribbons,
— before holy Inanna, before her eyes
they are parading —
(50) on their bodies are (sheep)skin (robes)
(the dress) of divinities,
— before holy Inanna, before her eyes,
they are parading —
Fine men, eminent ladies,
the doyenne of the women sages,
— before holy Inanna, before her eyes
they are parading —
who hold harps and calming instruments,
march beside them.
— Before holy Inanna, before her eyes,
they are parading
They (themselves) are girt
with implements of battle,
— before holy Inanna, before her eyes,
they are parading —
spears, the arms of battle,
are in their hands,
— before holy Inanna, before her eyes,
they are parading
FOURTH PLACE OF COUNTERING
(60) Their right arms are clothed with cloth
in male fashion,
— before holy Inanna, before her eyes
they are parading —
the great queen of heaven, Inanna,
I will hail!
On their left arms they have pulled
the cloth down and off
(63a) — before holy Inanna, before her eyes
they are parading —
(63b) the great queen of heaven, Inanna,
I will hail!
Playfully, with painted buttocks,
they engage in single combat
— before holy Inanna, before her eyes,
they are parading —
the oldest child of the Moon,
Inanna,
I will hail!
FIFTH PLACE OF COUNTERING
(Captive) lads in neck stocks
bewail to her (their fate)
— before holy Inanna, before her eyes,
they are parading —
maidens and crones, curling the (ir) hair (as harlots)
— before holy Inanna, before her eyes,
they are parading —
daggers and clubs rage before her
— before holy Inanna, before her eyes
they are parading —
the kurgarû’s mounted (on chariots),
swing the clubs
— before holy Inanna, before her eyes,
they are parading —
gore is covering the daggers,
blood sprinkles,
— before holy Inanna, before her eyes,
they are parading —
in the courtyard, the (place of) assembly
of the temple administrators,
they are shedding blood,
(as) loudly resounds there
(gay music of) TIGI–harps, tambourines, and lyres.
Inanna as Evening Star
The holy one has seen fit to step up
lone on the clear sky,
and on all lands, teaming
like the nation’s dark–headed people,
from heaven’s midst Milady
looks kindly down.
August is the queen, the evening star, Inanna.
Fitly (therefore) they praise the maiden Inanna.
August is the queen, the evening star, Inanna,
unto the borders of heaven!
SIXTH PLACE OF COUNTERING
Nightfall
The evening star, the brilliantly rising star,
shedding great light over holy heaven,
the queen, the evening star, has seen fit
to come forth on high,
warrior–like in the sky,
and in all lands the people
are lifting up their faces toward her,
(90) the man is cheering up, the woman is brightening,
the ox in its yoke is turning the head (homewards),
sheep and goats (?) (shuffling back)
make the dust settle (thick) in their folds.
The numerous (wild) goats and asses of Shakan,
the animals of the desert,
the far–flung four–footed beasts,
the orchard pits, the garden beds,
the green canebrake,
the fish of the deep, the birds of heaven,
Milady is making wend their way
to their lairs.
(All) living beings, the numerous people,
are bending (their) knees to her.
Called by Milady, the old women
(100) are providing plentifully
for great eating and drinking.
(Then) Milady calms down
everything in her country,
the playgrounds of the nation,
the holiday makers;
and the young brave
holds converse with the wife
heart (to heart).
From heaven’s midst Milady
looks kindly down,
before holy Inanna, before her eyes,
they walk —
August is the queen, the evening star in the sky,
Inanna.
Fitly (therefore) they praise the maiden Inanna.
August is the queen, the evening star in the sky
unto the borders of heaven!
SEVENTH PLACE OF COUNTERING
(110) Preeminent in the (rose–)tinted sky
the alluring one, befitting broad heaven,
has risen like moonlight at night,
has risen like sunlight at high noon.
Having imposed sweet sleep
on the nation’s homes,
— while all lands, the dark–headed ones,
the nation in its entirety,
sleep on roofs, sleep on city walls —
eloquent dream–soul afflati step up to her,
bring her their cases.
Then she discerns the righteous one,
discerns the wicked one.
The wicked one she will hand over
to (serve) a wicked sentence,
the evil one she will do evil to.
On the just one she looks truly,
determines a good fate for him.
(120) From heaven’s midst Milady
looks kindly down.
Before holy Inanna, before her eyes,
they walk.
August is the queen
hovering where heaven is founded,
Inanna.
Fitly (therefore) they praise
the maiden Inanna.
August is the queen
going (down) where heaven is founded
unto the borders of heaven!
EIGHTH PLACE OF COUNTERING
Dawn: Inanna as Morning Star
The queen preeminent, the alluring one of heaven,
has seen fit to come out, warrior–like, on high,
lovely is she at An’s radiant side,
with An on his august couch
she holds converse heart (to heart).
“May she be found to be
the young brave’s and the warrior’s only one!”
(130) (is its antiphon)
She is mighty! She is noble! She is elevated to high rank!
Great she is and august, surpassing in heroism!
(is what is sung at its middle)
The queen marveled at by the nation,
the lone star, the morning star,
the queen hovering where heaven is founded,
has seen fit
to come forth warrior–like on high,
and all lands do tremble before her.
Morning Rites
The dark–headed people get up for her.
the young brave traveling the road
sets his course by her,
the ox lifts up its head eagerly
in its yoke.
While at the same time, in the nation’s homes
they provide everything aplenty,
(140) hasten to holy Inanna,
and put it out in goodly fashion
for Milady (up in) heaven’s midst.
In the clean places, the clear places
of the desert,
on the roofs, on the wall–tops,
[of the dwellers on] wall–tops,
on mankind’s smoothed–out spots (for offerings),
they bring her incense
(fragrant) like a cedar forest.
Fine sheep, maned sheep, and grain–fed sheep
they offer up.
For the holy one they clean up a place,
set up handwashing (things) for her.
Ghee, dates, cheese, seven kinds of fruits,
they fill as breakfast,
onto the country’s table for her.
(150) Dark beer they pour for her,
light beer [they pour] for her.
With dark beer and [emmer] beer.…
for Milady with (barley) beer and [emmer] beer
SHAGGUBBE–pot and the fermenting vat
bubble, one as the other.
Of paste, liberally enriched with honey and ghee,
and of honey and dates, on cakes,
they make loaves for her,
wine at dawn. finely ground flour,
honeyed flour,
honey and wine at sunrise they libate for her.
The tutelary gods of the humans step, as their part,
up to her with the food and drink,
(160) and the holy one eats in the pure places,
the clean places.
From heaven’s midst Milady
looks kindly down,
before holy Inanna, before her eyes,
they wander.
August where heaven is founded,
is the queen, Inanna.
Fitly (therefore) they praise
the maiden Inanna.
August is the queen
hovering where heaven is founded
unto the borders of heaven!
NINTH PLACE OF COUNTERING
New Year’s Sacred Marriage: Inanna as Bride
In the palace,
the house that advises the country
and is a (restraining) yoke
on all foreign lands,
the house that is the river ordeal
of the dark–headed people,
the nation in its entirety,
a dais has been founded for Ninegalla,
(170) the king, being a god, will sojourn with her on it.
That she may take in charge
the life of all lands,
has on New Year’s Day,
the day for rites
for reviewing loyal servants
and performing correctly
the rites of the last day of the month,
a bed been set up for Milady.
Halfa–straw they have been purifying
with cedar perfume,
have been putting it on that bed for Milady.
Over it a bedspread has been pulled straight for her,
a bedspread of heart’s delight
to make the bed comfortable.
(180) Milady bathes in water the holy loins,
for the loins of the king
she bathes them in water.
For the loins of Iddin–Dagan
she bathes them in water.
Holy Inanna rubs (herself) with soap,
sprinkles the floor with cedar perfume.
The king goes with (eagerly) lifted head
to the holy loins,
goes with (eagerly) lifted head
to the loins of Inanna.
Ama–ushumgal–anna goes to bed with her:
“O my holy loins! O my holy Inanna!”
After he on the bed, in the holy loins,
has made the queen rejoice,
after he on the bed, in the holy loins
has made holy Inanna rejoice,
she in turn soothes the heart for him
there on the bed:
“Iddin–Dagan, you are verily
my beloved!”
Wedding Banquet
To pure libations, lavers set up,
to gently wafted incense vapors,
to lighted juniper incense,
to food portions standing ready,
to jars standing ready
into his august palace
she enters with him.
His loving consort has the arm
around his shoulders,
holy Inanna has the arm around his shoulders.
shines forth on the arm–lean throne
like the dawn.
With her radiates there, on the long side of the table,
sunlike the king.
Abundance, delicacies, plenty,
they bring straight to her,
a banquet of sweet things
they lay out,
the dark–headed people
bring it straight to her.
The bard has the lute,
that gives tongue from the podium,
the sweet–sounding ALGAR–instruments,
and the lyre, which belongs
where mankind is gay,
prove themselves
in his song of joy of heart.
The king has reached out for food and drink,
Ama–ushumgal–anna has reached out
for food and drink.
The palace is in festive mood,
the king is joyous,
the nation spends the time amid plenty,
Ama–ushumgal–anna is come in joy,
long may he live on this pure throne!
On the royal throne dais she has
(her) head on (his) shoulder.
Envoi
O Milady, you are given praise
to the borders
of heaven and earth!
You being a holy one,
engendered with heaven and earth,
holy passages, pure passages
for a holy one
are put in song!
O (you), chief ornament of the night,
befitting the assembly,
Inanna, oldest child of the Moon,
Queen, evening star, to praise you is sweet!
TENTH PLACE OF COUNTERING
From heaven’s midst Milady looks kindly down —
before holy Inanna, before her eyes,
they walk.
August is the queen, the evening star,
unto the borders of Heaven!
Mighty she is, noble, elevated to high rank,
great she is and august,
in heroism surpassing.
(is its antiphon)
A song of valor pertaining to Ninsianna.
REFERENCES
Jacobsen 1987a:112–124.
C. INDIVIDUAL FOCUS
1. PROVERBS
SUMERIAN PROVERB COLLECTION 3 (1.174)
Bendt Alster*
This collection of Sumerian proverbs is known from 40 duplicating cuneiform tablets, most of which come from Nippur, and they (i.e., the tablets, not necessarily the proverbs) date ca. 1900–1800 BCE. As is the case with other major Sumerian proverb collections, this one is known from fragments of multicolumn tablets inscribed with a complete collection, as well as from tablets only containing excerpts. In addition, single entries or very short excerpts are found on small school tablets. These sometimes contain the teacher’s handwritten master copy with the pupil’s imitated copy, and sometimes lexical or mathematical exercises on the reverse. Yet the proverbs or sayings were unquestionably used for instruction beyond the technical skills of cuneiform writing. The origin of the phrases was not uniform, but many of them were undoubtedly genuine proverbs, that is, anonymous phrases at home in the spoken language and recognized as such by a group of speakers. The daily activities of secular life are in focus rather than those of religion and cult. Unlike the biblical proverbs, there is no clearly expressed concept of “wisdom” embedded in the collections, nor is a clear compositional or ideological principle apparent. Since in origin true proverbs belong to situations arising in a spoken language, they are unsystematic and may well be contradictory, and they are not expressions of coherent philosophical thinking. It was their pregnant linguistic formulation combined with the implicit support of the authority of tradition that made them useful for didactic purposes. In this function, the Sumerian proverbs, like those of other cultures, represent a rather conservative type of social view that basically advises people to remain in the social groups where they belong in society.2
1. To stand up and to sit down, to spur the donkeys,
to take care of the king’s son,
who has the breath for that?
2. The nurse glances toward the parapet
as if she were a child of the king’s.
3. No matter how much water one draws,
the swamps (where it comes from) will still provide water to drink.
4. Unpleasant DULDIN-plants grow toward the good field.
5. Since you are a TIRIGAL-bird, I feed you.
Since you are a TIRIGAL-bird, I give you something to drink,
you are my son, your luck has changed.
6. “Let me go today” is what the herdsman says,
“let me go tomorrow” is what the shepherd boy says,
but “let me go” is “let me go,” and the time passes.
7. Possessions are close to the wind.
The ITERDUM-milk, although it is no river mud, cleaves the ground.
8. To serve beer with unwashed hands,
to spit without trampling upon it,
to sneeze without covering it up with dust,
to kiss with the tongue at midday without providing shade,
are abominations to Utu.
9a. The shepherd his penis, the gardener his hair-do.
9b. The unjust heir who does not support a wife, who does not support a son, is not raised to prosperity. a
10. Because the shepherd departed, his sheep did not come back into his custody.
11. Because the clever shepherd got confused, his sheep did not come back into his custody.
12. The herdsman in his weariness cannot recognize his own mother.
13. As long as you have light, grind the flour.
14. The wild bull has detestation for the plough.
15a. To eat modestly does not kill a man,
but coveting murders.
15b. To eat a little is to live splendidly.
When you walk around, keep your feet on the ground!
16. As long as he is alive, he is his friend.
When he is dying, he is his nether-world deputy.
17. Friendship lasts only one day,
but the relations of colleagues are eternal.
18. Quarreling belongs to the place of colleagues. Slander finds its way to the place of purification.
19. When travelling a man does not get tired of eating. He picks up food till the end of the day.
20. There are bitter tears in human flesh.
22. A hand will be stretched out toward a hand stretched out.
A hand will be opened toward an open hand.
23. He who has money is happy, he who has grain feels comfortable, but he who has live stock cannot sleep.
24. My Enlil, when you rise, my loin cloth is gone.
25. What did Enlil make? Chaff! The lance struck.
It went into the flesh.
26. When it is getting dark outside,
so that you cannot see a hand in front of you, come in unnoticed!
31. Nanne estimated his old age highly:
He built Enlil’s temple, but did not complete it.
He built a wall around Nippur, but …
He built Eanna, but after it had fallen into neglect he left it.
He captured Simurrum, but did not destroy its wall.
He never saw mighty kingship.
Thus Nanne descended to the underworld with a depressed heart.
33. (He who says) “Let me live today” is bound like a bull to a leash.
34. Ur-Namma [installed] the large mirrors in Enlil’s temple.
35. Nanne estimated his old age highly:
“It is the ‘I’ of a man of old age” he said.
37. A slave girl is one who … the door.
A palace-slave-girl is inconsiderate.
A palace-slave devours goodwill.
38. A slave girl carried her ransom money with her.
She lost (?) thirty mana (pounds).
39. You grind with the pestle like a fearful slave girl.
40. The slave girl who neglected to fill the container with barley, grumbled,
“it does not fill to the top, it does not fill to the middle.”
41. When (the lady) left the house,
and (the slave girl) entered from the street,
in the absence of her lady the slave girl sat down at a banquet.
42. If there is a dispute at the mill, the slave girl reveals what she has stolen.
44. The pleasure of a daughter-in-law is anger.
55. (As long as you are) alive you should not increase evil by lying, to succumb is your lot.
59. The lord decides in Uruk,
but the lady of Eanna decides for him.
60. I am a loyal steward with strong arms.
61. Let the sides be separated,
[let] the sides [be united (?)].
62. It is (my) foremanship that makes you charge at me.
63. Let the head drop down to the neck with bickering like a swaying reed.
64. The balance set with sinews is a pitfall for the feet.
A man should not take a merchant for his friend.
65. The merchant – how he minimized the silver!
[How he minimized] the oil and the barley!
67. One cannot drag out the weak,
one cannot put the strong to a halt.
68. The smell bitter to us, let it be the smell of leeks,
let it not be the smell of beans!
69. The insulter will be insulted.
The snickerer will be snickered at.
70. A lion caught in the trap of the storehouse is mine in this way:
The owner removes the wood (of the trap).
71. If one cuts a “let-me-stride,” its feet will walk to the edge of the desert.
72. A chameleon follows like a snake, like a “let-me-stride.”
73. As (if he were) a minor tenant, keeping watch is not what is (most) on his mind.
74. A tenant established a house,
ploughing established the field.
75. “I am getting up on my haunches for you,” (says) the man (who) is lifting sesame oil.
76. The oath of Ishkur destroys mountains,
and yet, it does not overturn a boat.
77. Ishkur splits the mountains,
and yet, he does not split the water sack.
79. The run-away slave girl sleeps badly.
82. He moves like a lion toward a louse,
but when he has to do a job he moves like a mongoose.
83. By sunrise decisions are made.
When the Sun is up, kingship is assigned.
84. Let not the cudgel find your name,
let it find your flesh!
85. If our smell from plucked leeks is sweet,
then it is a stranger that brought them to me.
86. “Give me!” is what the king says.
“Do well!” is what the cupbearer says.
87. What characterizes the carpenter is the chisel.
What characterizes the reed weaver is the basket.
What characterizes the smith is the making of “little sides.”
What characterizes the singer (?) is UA ALA-LA.
88. He who tosses his head will cross the river.
89. If the foreman does not know how to assign work, his folk will not stop tossing their heads.
91. Enlil’s temple is a summation of accounts.
The administration-priest is its foreman.
92. Enlil’s temple is totalling (?) wages.
93. Enlil’s great punishment is hunger.
94. (If) one does not give the dog something,
it will bark at every woman.
95. She grumbles like a dog beaten with a throw stick.
96. That which is made of evil threads grumbles.
97. “Let me speak a word” walks as if it had feet.
Who compares with someone who has a (boasting) mouth?
99. [You], speak to [me], and I will speak to you!
100. In order to do [a job you have] to eat something.
101. You speak with me, and I speak with you.
102. Fools are the lives of the heroes.
103. A fool has a (boasting) mouth.
104. A dog moves, a scorpion moves,
but my man does not move.
106. Where there is no grain, it is vengeance turned toward a city.
Where the are no reeds, it is worse than poverty.
107. “I promise!” does not mean “I promised!” “Something is finished” does not mean
“It is finished.” Things do not change.
108. A vagabond flays (the skin) of the open hand.
109. The two of them are like one man.
110. (If) one finds the place of my refuse heap
(one will say): “Do not trespass on it!”
111. Although it never went there, the goat knows the waste land.
112. My mouth cools the hot soup for you.
I pick the bones from the fish for you.
113. My mouth, every month I fill (you, my) mouth.
114. My tongue, like a runaway donkey, does not turn backwards.
115. All day long my food ration is kept away from me, my heart [aches (?)],
but even a dog can satisfy its hunger.
For me (when) it’s over, I am happy.
My mother did not allot a second food ration.
117. One should lift in pieces,
and one should put down in a block.
118. (He who says:) “Let me tell you about it” when he knows nothing,
and comes forward as a witness in a case he knows nothing about,
is an abomination to Suen.
119. Flies enter the open mouth.
120. Offerings create life.
121. Punishment is assigned to the quarrelsome one, he is afflicted with diseases.
122. Let him go out.
123. May you hold a kid in your right arm,
and may you hold a bribe in your left arm.
124. The manicurist is himself dressed in dirty rags.
125. He came, he dwelt, he finished,
and did not stand on the ground.
126. He who spoke, but did not [keep his promise (?)], his mouth is a liar.
127. My finger nail that hurts is in my loin.
My foot that hurts is in my sandal.
But who finds my heart that hurts?
128. May Inanna pour oil on my heart that hurts!
129. The sail on the mast blocks the river.
130. (When engaged) in a quarrel may an insult reveal itself to you.
(When engaged) in a dispute may a word (of reason) reveal itself to you.
131. If it is too sweet for him, let him eat salt.
If it is not too sweet for him, let him eat “bitter plants.”
132. Before the fire has gone out, write your exercise tablet.
134. A man’s personal god is a shepherd who finds a grazing ground for him.
Let him lead him like a sheep to the grass he can eat.
135. Until the boasters leave, their (?) mouths bring me “turning eyes.”
136. The heavens are destroyed, the earth is shaken. After the heavens were destroyed,
and after the earth was shaken, the people stood by themselves.
137. The rigging is not ship-shape,
and its stern is not seaworthy.
138. He who entered Elam, his mouth is bound.
139. (He who has to live in) Elam, his life is not good.
140. A cake (was) made of GUNIDA-wheat instead of honey.
The nomad (lit., Amorite) ate it, and did not recognize what was in it.
141. He (who) keeps fleeing flees from his own past.
142. The south wind fills my eyes with its sand.
Why does it not strike behind me?
143. Between the basket and the boat are the fields of Simurrum.
144. You keep walking around the storehouse like a pig that has a morsel in its mouth.
145. He who is overwhelmed by Inanna, to forget is what he dreams about.
146. My grain, whether roasted or not roasted,
you have to pour it out.
147. It is characteristic of your harvesting,
it is characteristic of your gleaning that they say, “he is gone, he is gone.”
148. “You should serve me,” (is what) the purification priests (say).
“Let me turn on your thigh,” (is what) the leather workers (say),
To stand in the corners, (is what the) courte-sans (do),
“Let me assist you,” (is what) the gardener (says),
“I swear by Enki that your garments will not stay long in the house,” (is what) the fullers (say).
149. The day became dark, but it did not rain.
It rained, but the sandals were not untied.
The Tigris was confused in its outlet, but no water filled the fields.
150. In Eridu, built in abundance, the monkey sits with longing eyes.
151. Cream and milk are mixed with an axe (?).
152. No matter how unique this one is, its appearances change.
153. The goat spoke in the manner of a (wise) old woman, but acted in the manner of an unclean woman.
154. The clod on the one hand,
the furrow on the other hand,
I am their third.
155. Let me drink diluted beer,
let me sit in the seat of honor!
156. Although it was not dear to him,
he attended the festival.
157. The time passes, what did you gain?
158. The statue is good. The father-in-law rejoices over it: “It is as if it were a human being.”
159. A good word is a friend to numerous men.
160. A destructive word is a yoke of four oxen.
161. Putting unwashed hands in the mouth is an abomination.
162. May a clever farmer live with you in the house.
163. What I drink is a river.
The place where I sleep is a place of reed mats.
164. The gekko has a tiara tied to it.
165. “Let me go home” is what he prefers.
166. From my heart which is greater than a garden, the sun does not rise.
167. Bearing up the sky, the earth is hanging in his hands.
168. “Bitter” barley is an abomination to the “ghost-man.”
169. Wheat flour is an abomination to his god.
170. If a man sailing downstream demands an inspection,
and if the hand touches the vulva on top of the clothes,
it is an abomination to Utu.
171. To [put (?)] a loaf in the oven while a song is sung is an abomination to Inanna.
174. If the sieve is not shaken, his flour will not drop from it.
175. Coveting and reaching out (in greediness) are abominations to Ninurta.
176. I am confronting Fate:
(Whether I) speak in the way of a just man,
(or I) speak in the way of a wicked man
(it makes no difference).
177. What comes out of one’s mouth is not in one’s hand.
179. He said “Woe”. The boat sank with him.
He said “Hurrah,” and the rudder broke.
180. He is walking with his neck “pierced.”
181. He makes the turning edge out of the lower edge.
182. He devours (everything) like a field (devoured) by locusts.
183. A released weaver (equals) two slave girls.
A released UNGUR-worker (equals) three slaves.
185. My mouth makes me comparable with men.
186. What is this after you split it?
And this after you split it?
187. When present it is (considered) a loin cloth, when lost it is (considered fine) clothing.
188. When a leader is being devoured by fire,
those behind him do not say, “Where is the leader?”
189. To cry out louder than (?) the people.
190. When straightforwardness is cut off,
injustice is raised.
REFERENCES
Previous edition: Falkowitz 1980; For a complete edition of the Sum. proverbs see Alster 1997. Studies: Alster 1992a; 1993a; Civil 1987; Geller 1990; Gordon 1959; Hallo 1985; Lambert 1960.
PROVERBS QUOTED IN OTHER GENRES (1.175)
Bendt Alster
The proverbs quoted in the Sumerian proverb collections are usually devoid of context indicative of the situations to which they were normally applied. Yet, in some lucky cases, the proverbs listed in the proverb collections coincide with those quoted in literary compositions. On the other hand, a number of proverbs found in literary compositions, in particular in Shuruppak’s Instructions (cf. below), were not included in the proverb collections known to us. The presence of proverbs in school dialogues and literary debates suggests that the proverb collections were used as source books which could supply the pupils with a stock of phrases useful for rhetorical debates. Some examples of proverbs quoted in various compositions are listed here.2
In the Epic Lugalbanda in Hurrumkurra, the following lines, 158–160, are addressed to the Sun god Utu by the hero Lugalbanda left alone in the unknown mountains. He appeals to the god for help:
An unknown dog is bad, an unknown man is terrible.
But on an unknown road at the verge of the mountains,
Oh Utu, an unknown man is an even worse bad man.
There is an allusion to this proverb in Shuruppak’s Instructions, lines 266–268:
An unknown dog is bad, an unknown man is terrible.
On the verge of the mountains, the gods of the mountains eat men!
Sumerian hymns sometimes contain allusions to proverbs. An example is Nanshe Hymn, line 144:
(The man who) after he has acquired something demands more.
This alludes to a proverb quoted elsewhere as follows:
To have and demand more is an abomination to god.
An example of religious instruction is found in the following short didactic poem:
A man without a god does not procure much food, does not procure a little food.
Descending to the river, he does not catch a fish.
Descending to a field, he does not catch a gazelle.
When he boasts, he obtains nothing.
When he runs, he obtains nothing.
However, if his god becomes favorable toward him,
anything that he names will be provided for him.
The function of proverbs to settle a dispute or even a legal issue is illustrated by the disputation between Mother Sheep and Grain, in which the grain takes precedence after the quotation of the following proverb:
He who has silver, he who has precious stones, he who has oxen, he who has sheep, must wait in the city gate for the man who has grain.
REFERENCES
Hallo 1990; Wilcke 1969.
2. INSTRUCTIONS
SHURUPPAK (1.176)
Bendt Alster
In addition to the standard version of this composition, dating around 1900–1800 BCE, an Early Dynastic version dating as early as 2600–2500 BCE, and two partly preserved Akkadian translations, one dating around 1500 BCE, and one dating around 1100 BCE, are known. The excerpts translated here are from the standard version, attested in approximately 80 fragments from Nippur and Ur as well as some other locations. The composition pretends to be addressed by the ante–diluvian ruler Shuruppak to his son Ziusudra, the hero of the flood story who, like Noah, survived the destruction of mankind and became the favorite of the gods. Pertinent to the teaching of Shuruppak are matters relating to secular life, that is, the management of a household, animal husbandry, agricultural work, and social behavior in general, with little emphasis on cult and religion. Many of the sayings quoted preserve the character of genuine proverbs. The imagery referring to daily life with no traces of abstract generalization is noteworthy. The moral perspective is one of modest egoism, in other words, one should not treat others in a way that may instigate them to retaliate to one’s own disadvantage. A characteristic type of saying consists of two parts, the first of which contains the advice itself. The second is a motivation clause, similar to those of proverbs in the Hebrew Bible, which makes the consequences of the action described in the first part explicit, frequently in terms of a humorous or exaggerated statement.
The basic edition is by Alster 1974b, with additions by Alster 1987, 1990, 1992a. Cf. Civil 1984 and Wilcke 1978. For a completely revised edition, see Alster 1997.
14. Do not buy a donkey that brays; it will split your people.
15. Do not place a field on a road; …
16. Do not plow a field where a path begins; …
17. Do not dig a well in your field; the people will cause you to suffer damage.
18. Do not place your house close to a public square; the heaviest traffic (?) is there.
19. Do not vouch for someone; that man will have a hold on you.
20. And you, let nobody vouch for you; the man will despise you.
21. Do not spy upon a man; the town will make you pay back.
22. Do not loiter about where there is a dispute.
23. Do not appear as a witness in a dispute.
28. Do not steal something; do not kill yourself.
29. Do not break into a house; do not demand the money chest (?).
30. The thief is a dragon, he who has received (what is stolen) is a slave.
31. My son, do not commit robbery, do not cut yourself with an axe.
32. Do not act as the bridegroom’s friend in a wedding, do not … yourself.
33. Do not laugh with a girl who is married; the slander is strong.
34. My son, do not sit (alone) in a chamber with a woman who is married.
35. Do not pick a quarrel; do not humiliate yourself.
36. Do not spit out lies; it causes disrespect.
37. Do not boast; your word stands (forever).
38. Do not give ill advice; you cannot bear a “heavy” eye.
39–41. Do not eat stolen food with a thief; do not sprinkle your hands with blood; after you have apportioned the bones, they will make you restore the ox, they will make you restore the sheep.
42–43. Do not utter nonsense; in the end it will reach out for you like a trap.
44. Do not scatter your sheep into untested grazing grounds.
45. If the “foundation” is not safe, do not hire a man’s ox.
46. A safe foundation is a safe road.
47. Do not travel at night; its “heart” is both good and bad.
48. Do not buy an onager; it lasts only one day.
49. Do not have sexual intercourse with your slave girl; she will name you with disrespect.
50. Do not curse with powerful means; they will turn round to your hands.
153. Do not beat a peasant’s son; he will “beat” your irrigation canal.
154. Do not buy a prostitute; she is the sharp edge of a sickle.
155. Do not buy a house–born slave; he is an herb that causes stomach–ache.
156. Do not buy a free–born man; he will lean against a wall.
157. Do not buy a palace–slave–girl; the house will be on a bad track.
158–164. After you have bought a slave from a foreign country, and after you have taken him home from his unknown place, my son, he will pour water for you, and walk in front of you till sunrise.
Since he has no house, he will not go to his house; since he has no town, he will not go to his town; he will not argue with you, he will not be quarrelsome.
REFERENCES
Alster 1974b; 1987; 1990; 1992a; Civil 1984; Wilcke 1978.
UR-NINURTA (1.177)
Bendt Alster
This composition is best known from a tablet found at Tell Ḥarmal (Baghdad), with two small duplicating fragments from Nippur and two of unknown provenance. The main source is written in a very difficult syllabic orthography, which makes the interpretation of a non–stereotype composition such as this one very difficult. The translation provided here is therefore very tentative. The sections dealing with the just man and the unjust one give the impression that the specific reference is to the king. What is expressed is the royal ideology, according to which a ruler who implements justice in his country and observes the cult of his gods will enjoy a long life, to the benefit of himself as well as his subjects.
Introduction: Ur–Ninurta’s kingship (lines 1–17)
1. In days of yore, in days completed long ago,
2. after nights had been become far remote from those distant nights,
3. after years had become remote from remote years,
4. after the flood had swept (the land),
5. the one given wisdom by Enki,
6. the one … by Nisaba,
7. the one who takes counsel with … Inanna,
8. — in order to organize the plans of Sumer,
9. in order to abolish wickedness, to implement righteousness,
10. in order to settle the people in their dwelling places,
11. in order to reinforce the foundation of Ur-Ninurta’s shepherd[ship],
12. [ (Ninurta?),] the king of Eshumesha, born in Nippur,
13. Suen’s (?) …,
14. so that the [ (royal throne?)] of [Ur]–Ninurta,
15. could be installed until distant days
16. from Nippur his beloved city,
17. he established it until distant days, forever.
The just man (lines 18–29)
18. So that the days should not [ (cease?)] for the sons (?) of the country,
19. The man who knows fear of god,
20. he himself …
21. [daily (?)] … he will bring offerings,
22. the god’s “name” is dear to him,
23. he keeps (?) (idle?) swearing away from his house.
24. he walks straight from the cult place,
25. what he gives out (?) is satisfactory.
26. Days will be added to his days,
27. the name he has will become even greater,
28. after his death the people will be consolidated.
29. A son will be born to him.
The unjust man (lines 30–37)
30. The man who does not fear the gods,
31. to whom their prayers are not dear,
32. who after he has sworn does not concern himself,
33. his old age will not last long.
34. His inheritance will not be dear to him (?).
35. A son will not be born to him.
36. A man who does not show fear of god, [who has ever] seen him attaining old age?
37. These are the instructions of …
REFERENCES
Alster 1991; 1992b.
3. FABLES
THE HERON AND THE TURTLE (1.178)
Gene B. Gragg
The following composition is contained on a four–column tablet excavated at Nippur in the 1951–1952 season. On this tablet it ends in the middle of the fourth column with a double–ruled line and a colophon giving the number of lines (namely, 115). The composition is similar in style to the literary disputations, but since it contains the story of a quarrel rather than the text of a debate, it may be more properly assigned to the genre of fable. As such if bears comparison with fable-like pericopes identified in the Bible. The conclusion is unfortunately not clear. Two other large tablets had our composition on the obverse, and either a long (at least 90–line) but poorly preserved continuation or a related composition, concerning the turtle but with no mention of the heron, on the reverse.1
Prologue 1: The Marshlands of Sumer (lines 1–9)
What does the canebrake say? Its growth is good!
The broad canebrake of Tutub Its growth is good!
The marsh of Kiritab Its growth is good!
The swamp of Akšak Its growth is good!
(5) The dense swamp of Enki Its growth is good!
The small swamp of Eridu Its growth is good!
The barbar reeds of Enki Its growth is good’
Ur, the small zi–reeds Its growth is good!
Ur, where cows and calves abound Its growth is good!
Prologue 2: The Flora of the Marshlands (lines 10–21)
(10) On that day the water drained from the reeds, and a pen appeared.
The ardadillu–plant spreading its seed from the canebreak,
The small kumul–plants came out of the earth — they are good little ones.
The small enbar-reed grooms her hair, she is a good young maiden.
The ubzal–reed goes about the city, he is a good young man.
(15) The pella–reed is covered from bottom to top, she is a good daughter–in–law.
The pella–reed turns from bottom to top, he is a good young son.
The “artisan”–reed digs the earth, he is a good old man.
The zi–reed covers? herself over, she is a good old woman.
(20) The canebreak beautifully raises his head, he is a good Gudea
The poplar tree raises his head by the orchard canal, he is a good king.
The … with shining branches, he is a good prince.
The Villain Appears (lines 22–31)
On that day, beside the canebrake, one sitting on the bank pleads:
“The heron — I will snatch away her eggs, I will take them away …
The bird, the gift–giver, will not make a gift.
(25) The heron, the gift–giver, will not make a gift.”
This one seized the fish, collected the eggs, he shoved them aside.
The carp in the honey–plant, he shoved them aside.
The marsh–carp in the small zi–reeds, he shoved them aside.
The toads in the liqiliqi–grass, he shoved them aside.
(30) The agargara–fish on the outskirts and its offspring, he shoved them aside.
The heron, he smashed her eggs, he dashed them in the sea.
The Heron Asks for a Safe Place to Lay Eggs (lines 32–47)
The bird, the gift–giver pleads.
[The heron] enters the temple of King Enki and speaks to him:
“[…] a broad place give me, so that I can lay eggs.”
(35) […] he gave to her.
[…] may he do for her.
[…] it is indeed a …
[…] in the reed of the bird.
In the [canebrake] she laid eggs.
(40) In the [canebrake of Tutub] she laid eggs.
In the marsh of Kiritab she laid eggs.
In the swamp of Akšak she laid eggs.
In the dense swamp of Enki she laid eggs.
In the small swamp, the swamp of Eridu she laid eggs.
(45) In the barbar–reeds of Enki she laid eggs.
In Ur, among the small zi–reeds she laid eggs.
In Ur, where cows and calves abound she laid eggs.
The Turtle Attacks the Heron (lines 48–71)
On that day, the turtle, the quarreler, the one of the cursed way, (said):
(50) “With the heron, with the heron, I will indeed pick a quarrel.
I, the turtle, with the heron, I will indeed pick a quarrel.”
He whose eyes are the eyes of a snake, “I will indeed pick a quarrel.”
Whose tooth is the tooth of a snake, “I will indeed pick a quarrel.”
Whose tongue is the tongue of a snake, “I will indeed pick a quarrel.”
Whose bite is the bite of a puppy, “I will indeed pick a quarrel.”
(55) (With) dainty hands and dainty feet, “I will indeed pick a quarrel.”
The turtle, an oven brick, “I will indeed pick a quarrel.”
(Who lives) in the drainage ditch, “I will indeed pick a quarrel.”
Who passes his time in the mud like a hoe, “I will indeed pick a quarrel.”
An unwashed dirt basket, “I will indeed pick a quarrel.”
(60) The turtle, the bird–trapper, the net setter,
Overthrew the heron’s reed–construction.
He turned her nest upside down.
He threw her children into the water.
The bird, the dark–eyed one,
(65) The turtle scratched her forehead with his claws.
Its blood covered her chest.
The heron cried, grew pale:
“I, the bird, the … nest […]
May my king judge my case, may he decide in my favor!
(70) May Enki judge my case, may he decide in my favor!
(May) the lord of Eridu […]”
The Turtle (Again) Attacks the Heron (lines 72–105)
For a second time; “The bird, the gift–giver, will not make a gift.
The heron, the gift–giver, will not make a gift.”
This one seized the fish, collected the eggs, he shoved them aside.
The carp in the honey–plant, he shoved them aside.
(75) The marsh–carp in the small zi–reeds, he shoved them aside.
The toads in the ligiligi–grass, he shoved them aside.
The agargara–fish on the outskirts and its offspring, he shoved them aside.
… […] head on high […].
She cries out to king Enki:
(80) “My king, you have given (your) broad cane-brake, there I have laid eggs.
In the broad canebrake of Tutub there I have laid eggs.
In the marsh of Kiritab there I have laid eggs.
In the swamp of Akšak there I have laid eggs.
in the dense swamp of Enki there I have laid eggs.
(85) In the small swamp, the swamp of Eridu, there I have laid eggs.
In the barbar–reeds of Enki there I have laid eggs.
In Ur, among the small zi–reeds there I have laid eggs.
In Ur, where cows and calves abound there I have laid eggs.
On that day, the turtle, the quarreler, the one of the accursed way,
(90) He whose eyes are the eyes of a snake, the one of the accursed way,
Whose tooth is the tooth of a snake, the one of the accursed way,
Whose tongue is the tongue of a snake, the one of the accursed way,
Whose bite is the bite of a puppy, the one of the accursed way,
(With) dainty hands and dainty feet, the one of the accursed way,
(95) The turtle, an oven brick, the one of the accursed way,
(Who lives) in the drainage ditch, the one of the accursed way,
Who passes his time in the mud like a hoe, the one of the accursed way,
An unwashed dirt basket, the one of the accursed way,
The turtle, the bird–trapper, the net setter,
(100) Overthrew my, the heron’s, reed–construction.
He turned my nest upside down.
He threw my children into the water.
I, the bird, the dark–eyed one,
The turtle scratched my forehead with his claws.
(105) My blood covered my chest.”
Conclusion: Justice Is Rendered (lines 106–115)
The prince said to (his) vizier, Isimud:
(106a) “My vizier Isimud, my …
Who stands (in waiting) for King Enki, my perpetual prayer (offerer),
[…] when you have pressed out on the left side,
[…] when you have poured it,
(110) […], you will cover it.
[…] when you have wound,
[…] when you have …
[…] when you have brought it …
When you have placed it in the dense swamp of Enki,
(115) On that day … may it sit.”
REFERENCES
Gragg 1973a:51–72.
4. PIOUS SUFFERER COMPOSITIONS
“MAN AND HIS GOD” (1.179)
Jacob Klein
This Sumerian poem, of about 140 lines, tells a didactic story of a righteous sufferer who remains faithful to his personal god and ultimately is rehabilitated and restored to his former happy status. The poem opens with a brief didactic exhortation, that a man should faithfully praise his god, soothing his heart with lamentations, for “a man without a god would not have anything to eat” (lines 1–10). The rest of the poem is a (fictitious) illustration of this general truth. First the poet introduces the righteous, anonymous, sufferer, describing briefly the various diseases that befell him, whereupon the man utters a bitter lament to his god and pays him homage reverently (lines 11–27). This is followed by the sufferer’s lengthy penitential lament, which constitutes the bulk of the composition (lines 28–119). The sufferer begins his lament, describing the ill treatment accorded to him by his fellow men (lines 28–56). Next he expresses the wish that everyone of his friends and family lament ceaselessly on his behalf before his god (lines 64–68). Then he complains about his physical illness and depression (lines 69–81). The sufferer concludes his prayer with a confession of his sins and a heartrending plea for mercy, forgiveness and restoration (lines 82–119). As expected, the drama comes to a happy end: the poet tells us that the god accepted the sufferer’s prayer, restored his health, turned his suffering into joy and granted him benevolent guardian angels (lines 120–132). The poem concludes with a thanksgiving praise, uttered by the saved man to his personal god, in which he vows that he will constantly glorify him as long as he lives (lines 133–143).
In many respects, the poem resembles the biblical book of Job. The main difference between the two sources is that the Sumerian composition lacks elements of dialogue. Instead, the complaints and reflections of the hero are expressed in a long personal lamenting monologue, addressed to the deity. And after the hero is restored to health, he utters a short thanksgiving to his merciful and benevolent god. Further, unlike Job, the sufferer has some feelings of guilt, although he is not aware of his sins.
Social Rejection of the Sufferer (lines 28–30; 33–40; 46–47)
I, the young-man, the learned one — my know[ledge] is of no avail to me;
The truth which I speak is turned into a lie.
(30) The man of deceipt overwhelms me (like) a storm, I (am forced to) serve him …
When I enter the house, heavy is the spirit;
I, the young-man — when I go out to the street, oppressed is the heart.
(35) I, the valiant – my loyal shepherd becomes angry with me, (and) looks upon me with an evil eye.
My herdsman maltreats me, who am not hostile (toward him),
My companion says not a true word to me,
My friend renders my words, truthfully spoken, a lie.
The man of deceit speaks insulting words to me;
(40) (But) you, my god, do not thwart them!…
Food is all about, (yet) my food is hunger,
On the day shares were allotted to all, my allotted share was suffering!
Complaining of Sickness and Depression (lines 69–80)
“My god, the day shines bright over The Land, (but) for me the day has darkened,
(70) The bright day has dawned (?) upon (?) me (?) like a misty (?) day.
Tears, lament, anguish and depression are lodged within me,
Suffering overwhelms me like a weeping child.
In the hands of Fate, (my) features had been changed, my breath of life had been carried off,
Asag, the evil one, bathes in my body.
(75) In the bitterness and misfortune of my path, I never see a good dream;
Daily false dreams do not cease (haunting) me!
Anguish embraced me — who am not its spouse,
Wailing spread wide (its) arms (around) me — who am not its small child,
(80) Lamentation swept over me like a crushing (?) storm …”
Confession of Sins and Plea for Mercy (lines 98–119)
“My god, to you, who are my father that begot me, let me [lift] my eyes,f
‘Good Cow,’ god (?) of mercy (and acceptance of) supplication, let me [acquire (?) through (?) you] lofty strength!
(100) How long will you not care for me, will you not look after me?
Like an ox I would like to rise toward you, but you do not let me rise,
You do not let me take the right course.
They say — the wise men — a word true and right:
‘Never has a sinless child been born to its mother,
(105) A mortal (?) has never been perfect (?), a sinless man has never existed from old’ …
My god, … after you will have let my eyes recognize my sins,
I shall recount at the city (?) gate those of them that have been forgotten, and those of them which are visible (?);11
(115) I, the young man, shall publicly declare my sins before you!
In the assembly let tears (?) fall, like a heavy downpour (of rain)!
In your temple, let my merciful mother continuously weep for me!
I, the valiant, may your holy [heart have] mercy and take pity on me!
I, the young man – may your heart, ‘the terrifying (flood) wave,’ be assuaged toward me!” i
Acceptance of the Sufferer’s Prayer and his Restoration (lines 120–132)
(120) The man — his god verily heard his bitter weeping;
After the heart of his god became soothed toward the young man at his prolonged lamentation and wailing,
The true words, the artless words, uttered by him, his god accepted.
His words of supplication, which the young man expressed,
(And) the pure prayers (?) — pleased the flesh of his god like fine oil.
(125) (Thereupon) his god withdrew his hand from the evil matter:
Anguish, which embraced him, who was not its spouse,
(And) wailing, which spread out wide its arm (around him) — he annihilated;
Lamentation, which swept over him like a crushing (?) storm – he dissipated;
Fate, which had been lodged in his body, he eradicated (?).
(130) He turned the young man’s suffering into joy,
A benevolent UDUG-spirit, that watches at the (door) opening (?), set by him (as) a guardian,
He (also) gave him LAMMA-spirits17 (of) “good eyes.”
REFERENCES
Van Dijk 1953; Hallo 1968; Jacobsen 1976:152–164; Klein 1982; Kramer 1955; ANET 589–591; Mattingly 1990; Weinfeld 1988.
5. DISPUTATIONS
THE DISPUTATION BETWEEN EWE AND WHEAT (1.180)
H. L. J. Vanstiphout
This composition is presently the most accessible of the group of poetic disputations, a genre which was very popular in the Old Babylonian scribal schools and, according to the texts themselves, also at the royal court. This piece is remarkable for three reasons: it starts with a very long “cosmogonical” introduction, it is apparently occasioned by a festival (a banquet at harvest time?), and it is a prime example of a consciously poetic stance in composition as well as in performance.2 The text is available in a provisional edition which utilized the 39 published manuscripts.
(1) When upon the Hill of Heaven and Earth
An had spawned the divine Godlings, —
Since godly Wheat had not been spawned or created with them,
Nor had the yarn of the godly Weaver been fashioned in the Land,
(5) Nor had the loom of the godly Weaver even been pegged out,
For Ewe had not yet appeared, nor were there numerous lambs,
And there was as yet no goat, nor numerous kids,
For Ewe did not drop her twin lambs
And Goat did not drop her triplet kids, —
(10) The very names of Wheat, the holy blade, and of Ewe
Were yet unknown to the Godlings and the greater Divinities.
There was no wheat–of–thirty–days;
There was no wheat–of–forty–days;
There was no wheat–of–fifty–days,
(15) Nor small wheat, nor mountain wheat, nor wheat of the goodly village;
Also there was no cloth to wear;
The godly Weaver not having been born, no royal cap was worn;
Lord herald, the precious lord, had not been born;
Shakan did not go out to the arid lands.
(20) The people of those distant days
Knew not bread to eat,
They knew not cloth to wear;
They went about in the Land with naked limbs
Eating grass with their mouths like sheep,
(25) And drinking water from the ditches.
At that time, at the birthplace of the Gods,
In their home, the Holy Hill, they (the gods) fashioned Ewe and Wheat.
Gathering in the divine dining hall,
Of the bounty of Ewe and Wheat
(30) The Godlings of the Holy Hill
Partook, but were not sated;
Of the sweet milk of their goodly sheepfold
The Godlings of the Holy Hill
Then drank, but were not sated.
(35) And so, for their own well–being in the goodly sheepfold
They gave them to Mankind as sustenance.
Then Enki spoke to Enlil:
Father Enlil, Ewe and Wheat
Were well settled on the Holy Hill;
(40) Let us now send Ewe and Wheat down from the Holy Hill.”
Enki and Enlil, having agreed on this, their sacred word,
Sent down Ewe and Wheat from the Holy Hill.
Ewe, fenced in by her sheepfold,
They richly endowed in grass and herbs.
(45) For Wheat they made a field
And bestowed on her Plow and Yoke and Team.
Ewe, standing in her sheepfold,
Was a shepherd full of the sheepfold’s splendor;
Wheat, standing in her furrow,
(50) Was a shapely girl radiating beauty
Lifting her noble head high above the field
She was suffused with bounty from the skies.
Thus both Ewe and Wheat were radiant in appearance
And among the gathered people they caused abundance,
(55) And in the Land they brought well–being.
The ordinances of the Gods they fulfill with care;
The store–rooms of the Land they fill with abundance,
So that the barns of the Land are bulging with them.
Even in the home of the needy, who are crouching in the dust,
(60) When they enter there, they bring about wealth.
Both of them, wherever they direct their steps,
Add to the riches of the household;
Wherever they stand, they bring satisfaction; Wherever they sit, they are embellishment.
And so they gladden the heart of An and the heart of Enlil.
(65) They drank sweet wine,
They drank tasty beer;
And when they had drunk sweet wine
And sated themselves on tasty beer
They started a quarrel in the midst of the watered fields;
(70) They held a wrangle in the Dining Hall. e
Wheat calls out to Ewe:
“Sister, I am your better; I take precedence!
I am the most splendid of the jewels of the Land!
I give strength to the Chief Warrior
(75) So that he fills the palace with awe,
And people spread his fame to the confines of the Land!
I am a gift of the Gods;
I am the strength of princes!
When I grant my power to the warrior
(80) And he enters the lists,
He knows not fear nor faltering,
For I make him march out as to a playing field.
Yet I also foster neighborliness and friendship,
As I sort out neighbors’ quarrels.
(85) And when I come out to the captive youth,
And give him my blessing,
He forgets his despondent heart
As if I broke his fetters and shackles.
I, I am wheat, the Holy Blade; I am Enlil’s daughter (everywhere),
(90) In the shacks, in the shepherds’ huts,
scattered over the plain,
What can you put against this? What can you reply? Answer me that!”
Thereupon Ewe replied to Wheat:
“Sister, what are you saying?
An, king of the Gods,
(95) Made me descend from the holy and most precious place!
All the yarns of the divine Weaver, the splendor of royalty, are mine! Shakan, lord of the Mountain,
Adorns the king’s emblem with incrustations,
And puts his implements in order.
(100) Against the mighty peaks of the rebel land he twists a rope,
He readies the big sling, the quiver and the longbow.
Also the watch over the elite troops is mine,
As is the sustenance of the workers in the field,
And the water–skin of refreshing drink and the sandals — all that is mine!
(105) Sweet oil, the fragrance of the Gods,
Mixed oil, pressed oil, herbal oil, cedar oil of the offerings — these are mine!
In his gown, which is my cloth of shining wool,
The king rejoices on the throne
My sides gleam on the flesh of the Great gods!
(110) Together with the bathed purification and incantation priests
When they have dressed for purifying me,
I walk to my holy meal!
But your harrow, plowshare, rein —
These are but tools of the all–devouring bog!
(115) What can you put against this? What can you reply? Answer me that!”
Again Wheat addressed Ewe:
“When the beer bread has been well cooked in the oven,
Yea, when the mash has been prepared in the oven,
Ninkasi herself mixes them for me.
(120) Your big billy–goats and rams
Are then finished for my banquet.
On their thick legs they stand apart from my produce,
And even your shepherd from the desert lifts his eyes towards my things!
As to me, when I stand in the furrow in the midst of the field
(125) My farmer chases away your shepherd’s lad with his cudgel.
When they are looking for you in fields and desolate places,
Fear does not leave you.
Snakes, scorpions, robbers that dwell in the plain —
They all threaten your life in the high desert!
(130) Every day your number is totalled
And your tally–stick put up,
So that your shepherd can tell how many ewes are left, and how many lambs;
How many goats and how many kids!
When the breeze passes through the towns,
(135) And the strong winds are buffeting,
They have to construct a shed for you.
But when the breeze passes through the towns,
And the strong winds are buffeting,
Then I, as an equal, stand up to Ishkur!
(140) I, I am Wheat, born for the warrior; I do not give up!
The churn, the vat on legs, those adornments of herding, these are your attributes!
What can you put against this? What can you reply? Answer me that!”
Again Ewe replied to Wheat:
“You, like heavenly holy Inana,
(145) You love horses!
The criminal and his mate, the foreign slave,
And the forced laborer, those of the poor wives and indigent children,
When, bound with the elbow–rope,
They come to the threshing floor,
(150) Or are taken away from the threshing–floor,
When their flail hits your face, strikes your mouth,
Then your ears … like a pestle …
And you are carried away by the south or the north wind.
The millstone …
(155) It makes your body into flour as if it were pumice,
In order to fill the kneading trough.
Then the baker’s girl flattens you out broadly,
And you are put in the oven
And taken out of the oven again.
(160) When you are finally put on the table,
I come before you, and you are behind!
Wheat, watch yourself!
You, just as I, are meant to be eaten.
Therefore, looking at what you really are,
(165) Why should I come second?
The miller, is he not evil to you?
What can you put against this? What can you reply?”
Then wheat was hurt in her pride; she bowed her head for another attack.
Wheat replied to Ewe:
(170) “You, Ishkur is your master, Shakan your herdsman, and your bed is the arid wasteland!
Like fires beaten out in houses and fields,
Like sparrows chased from the door of a house,
You are turned into the lame and the weak of the Land!
I can indeed bow my neck to the ground;
(175) But you are put into various containers;
When your innards are taken away by the buyers in the market,
And your neck is wrapped with your very own loin-cloth,
One man says to the other: ‘Fill the measure with grain for my sheep!’ ”
Thereupon Enki spoke to Enlil:
(180) “Father Enlil, Ewe and Wheat, both of them,
Should walk together!
Of their combined metal [the alloy] should never cease;
Yet of these two Wheat should be the greater!
May the other one kneel before Wheat;
(185) May … kiss her feet!
And from sunrise to sunset
The name of Wheat be praised!”
[May you put Ewe’s neck to the yoke] of Ashnan!
For whosoever has gold, or silver, or cattle, or sheep,
(190) Shall ever wait at the door of him who has grain, and so pass his days!”
Dispute of Ewe and Wheat
Because Ewe is left behind and Wheat comes out (winning),
Praise be to father Enki!
REFERENCES
Alster and Vanstiphout 1987; Bottéro 1991:7–22; Clifford 1994; Pettinato 1971; van Dijk 1953; 1964; Vanstiphout 1990a; 1990b; 1991b; 1992a; 1992b.
THE DISPUTATION BETWEEN THE HOE AND THE PLOW (1.181)
H. L. J. Vanstiphout
This piece is undoubtedly the finest example of the genre. It has long been recognized as one of the first poetic, if heavily rhetorical, statements of the case of the common man against the rich and mighty. But its most striking qualities are the sheer excellence of the argumentation (plow is deftly hoist with its own petard),2 the heavy satire on the pretenses of the mighty, the earthy but clever humor, and most of all the irreverent but highly effective “reworking” of the format: the traditional cosmogonic introduction is turned into a story the workmen tell at night, when resting and drinking! It is to be regretted that we still have no adequate edition.4 The present translation is based upon all published texts and some quotes from secondary literature.
(1) Hey! Hoe, Hoe, Hoe, tied up with string;
Hoe, made from poplar, with a tooth of ash;
Hoe, made from tamarisk, with a tooth of sea-thorn;
Hoe, double–toothed, four–toothed;
(5) Hoe, child of the poor, bereft even of a loincloth;
Hoe picked a quarrel with Plow.
Hoe and Plow — this is their dispute.
Hoe cried out to Plow
“O Plow, you draw furrows — what is your furrowing to me?
(10) You make clods — what is your clod making to me?
You cannot dam up water when it escapes.
You cannot heap up earth in the basket.
You cannot press clay or make bricks.
You cannot lay foundations or build a house.
(15) You cannot strengthen an old wall’s base.
You cannot put a roof on a man’s house.
O Plow, you cannot straighten a street!
O Plow, you draw furrows — what is your furrowing to me?
You make clods — what is your clod making to me?”
(20) The Plow cries out to the Hoe
“I, I am Plow, I was fashioned by the great powers, assembled by noblest hands!
I am the mighty registrar of the god Enlil!
I am the faithful farmer of Mankind!
At the celebration of my harvest–festival in the fields,
(25) Even the King slaughters cattle for me, adding sheep!
He pours out libations for me, and offers the collected liquids!
Drums and tympans sound!
(30) The king himself takes hold of my handle-bars;
My oxen he harnesses to the yoke;
Great noblemen walk at my side;
The nations gaze at me in admiration,
The Land watches me in joy! c
(35) The furrow I draw is set upon the plain as an adornment;
Before my sheaves, erected in the fields,
Even the teeming herds of Shakan kneel down!
Before my ripened grain, ready for harvesting
…
(40) …
The shepherd’s churn is filled to the brim;
With my sheaves scattered over the fields
The sheep of Dumuzi are sated.
My stacks adorning the plains
(45) Are like so many yellow hillocks inspiring awe.
Stacks and mounds I pile up for Enlil;
Dark emmer I amass for him.
I fill the storehouses of Mankind;
Even the orphans, the widows and the destitute
(50) Take their reed baskets
And glean my scattered grains.
My straw, piled up in the fields
People even come to collect that,
While the beasts of Shakan go about.
(55) O Hoe, miserable hole–digger, with your pathetic long tooth,
O Hoe, always burrowing in the mud,
O Hoe, whose head is always in the dust,
O Hoe–and–brickmold, you spend your days in mud, nobody ever cleans you!
Dig holes! Dig crevices! O navel–man, dig!
(60) O Hoe, you of the poor man’s hand, you are not fit for the hand of the noble!
The slave’s hand is adorned with your head!
And you dare to insult me?
You dare to compare yourself to me?
When I go out to the plains, every eye is full of admiration,
(65) …
…”
Then the Hoe cried out to the Plow
“O Plow, my smallness — what is that to me? My humble state — what is that to me?
My dwelling at the river bank – what is that to me?
At Enlil’s place, I precede you!
In Enlil’s temple, I stand in front of you!
(70) I make ditches, I make canals;
I fill the meadows with water;
And when the water floods the canebrake,
My small baskets carry it away.
When a canal is cut, or a ditch,
(75) And the water rushes out as a rising flood,
Making everything into a swamp,
I, the Hoe, dam it in,
So that neither southern nor northern storm can blow it away.
The fowler samples eggs;
(80) The fisherman catches fish;
And they all empty bird–traps
Thus is wealth spread everywhere by my doing.
Moreover, after the water is drained from the meadows
And the work in the moist earth is to be taken in hand,
(85) O Hoe, I come out to the field before you!
The opening up of the field — I start that before you!
The sides and the bottom of the dyke I clean for you!
The weeds in the field I heap up for you!
Stumps and roots I heap up for you!
(90) Only then you work the field, you have your go!
Your oxen are six, your people four — you yourself are merely the eleventh!
The side–boards take away the field.
And you want to compare yourself with me?
When you finally come down to the field after me,
Your single furrow already gladdens your eye!
(95) When you finally put your head to the task,
Your tongue gets caught by brambles and thorns.
Your tooth breaks, and your tooth is renewed;
You will not keep it for long.
Your plowman calls you “This Plow is broken again!”
(100) And, again, carpenters have to be hired, people …
The whole chapter of workers is milling around you.
The harness–makers scrape another green hide for you,
Twisting it with pegs for you.
Without stopping they turn the tourniquet for you,
(105) And finally a foul hide is put upon your head.
Your work is slight, though your ways are great!
My turn of duty is twelve months;
Your effective term is four months;
The time you are idle is eight months;
(110) So you are absent twice as long as you are present!
And then, on the boat you make a hut;
When you are put aboard, your ‘hands’ sever the boards
So that your face has to be pulled out of the water like a wine–jar.
And only after I have made a pile of logs
(115) Can my smoke and fire dry you out!
Your seeding–funnel — what is then its importance?
Your ‘important ones’ are thrown upon a pile
As implements to be destroyed.
But I, I am the Hoe, and live in your city!
(120) No one is more honored than I am.
I am but a servant following his master;
I am but the one who builds the house for his king;
I am but the one who broadens the stalls, who expands the sheepfolds!
I press clay, I make bricks;
(125) I lay foundations, I build houses;
I strengthen the base of an old wall;
I repair the roof of the honest man;
I, I am Hoe, I lay out the streets!
When I have thus gone through the city and built its solid walls,
(130) And have made appear the temples of the great gods therein,
Embellished them with red, yellow and streaked wash,
I go to construct the royal dwelling in the city,
Where overseers and captains dwell.
When the weakened clay has been built up, the fragile clay buttressed,
(135) They can rest because of me in a cool, well-built dwelling.
And when the fire–side makes the hoe gleam, and they lie on their side,
You are not to go to their feast!
They eat and drink;
Their wages are paid out to them
(140) Thus I enable the laborer to support his wife and children.
For the boat–man I make an oven, I heat pitch for him;
And when I have fashioned Magur and Magilum boats,
I have enabled the boatman to support his wife and children.
For the householder I plant the garden;
(145) And when the garden has been encircled, the fences been put up, the agreements reached,
People again take up the hoe.
When wells have been dug, and poles set up,
The bucket–bar hung, I straighten the beds
And fill their ditches with water.
(150) When the apple–tree has blossomed and the fruits appear,
These fruits are put up as an ornament in the temples of the gods.
Thus I enable the gardener to support wife and children!
When I work at the river with the plow, strengthening the banks,
Building a hut on its banks,
(155) Those who have passed the day in the fields
And the shift which has done the same at night,
They enter their huts.
They revive themselves as in a well–built city;
The water–skins I made they use to pour water
(160) And so they put life into their hearts again.
And you, Plow, think to insult me (by saying) ‘Go, dig a hole!?’
On the plains, where no moisture is found,
When I have dug up the sweet water,
The thirsty ones come back to life at the side of my wells!
(165) And what then says the one to the other? What do they tell one another?
‘The shepherd’s hoe is surely set up as an ornament on the plains!
For when An had ordered his punishment,
And the bitterness had been ordained over Sumer,
And the waters of the well–built house had collected in the swamp,
(170) And Enlil had frowned upon the Land,
Even the shepherd’s crook of Enlil had been made felt,
When great Enlil had acted thus,
Enlil did not restrain his hand.
Then the Hoe, with its single tooth, struck the dry earth!
(175) As for us, the winter’s cold, as the locust swarm, you lift!
The heavy hand of summer as of winter you take away.
O Hoe, you binder, you bind the sheaf!
O bird–trap, you binder, you bind the reed-basket!
The lone workman, even the destitute, is provided for;
(180) The grains … are spread.’ ”
Then the Storm spoke a word
“The millstone lies still, while the pestle pounds!
From side–plate and foot–plate good results may be had!
Why should the sieve quarrel with the strainer?
(185) Why make another angry?
Ashnan, can a single one reap your neck?
Ripe grain, why should you compare?”
Then Enlil spoke to the Hoe
“O Hoe, do not be so angry!
(190) Do not cry out so loud!
Of the Hoe, is not Nisaba its overseer, its captain?
Hoe, whether five or ten shekel make your price,
Or whether one–third or one half mina,
(195) Like a maid–servant, always ready, you will fulfill your task!”
Dispute of the Hoe and the Plow.
Because the Hoe was greater than the Plow,
Praise be to Nisaba.
REFERENCES
Attinger 1993; Civil 1994; Kramer 1975; 1981; Vanstiphout 1984; 1991a; 1992a.
THE DISPUTATION BETWEEN BIRD AND FISH (1.182)
H. L. J. Vanstiphout
This composition is remarkable not only because it stresses the importance of pleasant and beautiful things in life over dour seriousness, but also because of its peculiar format. It intentionally mixes the generic features of the disputation with those of a fable.2 Since fish is unable to win by force of argument, it attempts to do so by force tout court. Fish’s violent attack introduces an element of narrativity which breaks through the argumentative structure. The burden seems to be that stern moral righteousness can never excuse violence anyway. Apart from a couple of more or less complete translations there is no edition, though barring a few possibly crucial lines at the end the text can be reconstructed almost completely. The present translation is based upon an edition prepared for the PSD project, and uses unpublished material.
(1) [In long gone, far off days], after the kind fate had been decreed,
[After An and Enlil] had set up the rules of heaven and earth,
[Nudimmud, noble prince], the lord of broad insight, —
[Lord Enki,] decreeing [the fates], their third one he surely is! —
(5) [The waters …] he collected, founded dwelling–places;
[Life–giving (waters)?] which beget fecund seed he held in hand;
[Tigris and] Euphrates he laid out side by side, and brought in them (the water of) the mountains;
[The smaller] streams he scoured, and put in ditches too.
[Father] Enki also made wide pens and stalls, and provided shepherd and herdsman;
(10) He founded cities and villages, and so made mankind thrive;
A king he gave them for shepherd, and raised him to sovereignty over them;
The king rose as daylight over the countries.
[Father] Enki tied up the marshes, growing there reeds young and old;
[In …] ponds and large lakes he made birds and fishes teem;
(15) [In the lagoons?] he gave all kinds of living creatures as their sustenance,
[…] and so placed the abundance of the gods in their charge.
Nudimmud, noble prince, the lord of broad insight,
When he had fashioned Bird and Fish,
He filled canebrake and marsh with Fish and Bird,
(20) Selected their stations
And made them acquainted with their rules.
Upon that time Fish laid its eggs in the swamp;
Bird built its nest in an opening of the thicket.
But Bird frightened Fish (dwelling) among its property.
(25) [Fish to Bird] cried out;
[…] started a wrangle.
[Fish …] stood up in pride,
[…] shouted at him, turning up his nose:
“[…] who knows no peace;
(30) […] constantly wailing;
[…] face? […] heart dripping with evil!
Standing on the plain you keep picking — they chase you away!
In the furrows the farmer’s sons lay a snare for your neck;
The gardener in garden and orchard sets up a net against you!
(35) He cannot rest his arm from the sling, cannot sit down in peace!
For in the vegetable rows you cause damage; you are unpleasing;
On the fields along the banks there are your unpleasing footprints.
Bird, you know no shame; you fill the courtyard with your droppings
The sweeper–boy, who cleans the courtyard, chases you with ropes!
(40) By your call the household is disturbed; they flee from your din;
And enter the house of the shrine!
Mooing like cattle, bleating like sheep
They pour out cool water in narrow jugs for you
And then drag you away to the daily sacrifice!
(45) The fowler carries you away with fettered wings,
(The fisherman brings you to the palace;)
Having bound your wings and beak.
Chatterer, whose mooing has no …; what are you flapping about?
With your ugly screech you disturb the night; no one sleeps sweetly.
(…)
(52) Bird, get out of the swamp! Take this racket of yours off my back!
Go, creep into your hole on top of the rubbish heap — this befits you!”
Thus did Fish insult Bird on that day.
(55) But Bird, with dappled coat and glittering face, and convinced of its own beauty,
Took not to heart the insults Fish had hurled at it.
As if it had been but a nursemaid singing a lullaby,
It did not give in to that speech, but still angry words rose from it.
And then did Bird answer Fish:
(60) “How has your heart become so arrogant, while you yourself are so lowly?
Your mouth is a hillock; your mouth goes all the way round, but you cannot see behind you.
Your hips are cut off, as are your arms, hands and feet — try to put your neck to your feet!
Your smell is awful; you make people throw up, they wrinkle their nose at you!
No trough would hold the kind of prepared food you eat;
(65) And he who has carried you dares not let his hand touch his skin!
In the great swamp and the broad marshes, I am your persecuting demon;
The sweet plants there you cannot eat, they are near to my mouth!
You cannot travel with safety in the river, my storm–cloud covers you.
Underneath my eyes you wriggle through all the reeds!
(70) Your young, every one of them, constitute my daily allotment; you give them to me for my food.
Your big ones are just as certain my provision at my banqueting hall.
While I, I am beautiful Bird, the wise one!
Beautiful artistry was put into (the finishing of) my adornment
But no skill has been applied even to begin your rough shaping!
(75) Strutting about in the Royal Palace befits me;
My warbling is as a decoration in the courtyard;
The sound I produce, the sweet chanting of my voice,
Is made into a delicious ornament for Shulgi’s person!
Produce and fruits of all orchard and gardens are my plentiful daily ration;
(80) Finest groats, peeled barley, emmer wheat and dates are sweet things to my mouth.
How do you not recognize my greatness? Bow your neck to the ground!”
Thus Bird insulted Fish on that day.
Fish became angry and, trusting in its heroic strength and worthiness,
Swept over the bottom like a heavy rain cloud. It took up the quarrel.
(85) It took not to heart the insults Bird had hurled at it.
“Upon your own neck be it!” it spoke unrestrainedly,
And again did Fish reply to Bird:
“Long beak, long legs, dwarfed feet, cleft bill, slit mouth!
You are clattering from ignorance; you have not reflected!
(90) Glutton, freak (?), filling the courtyard with droppings —
The little sweeper–boy sets nets in the house and chases you with ropes! —
The baker, the brewer, the porter, all those who live in the house are annoyed with you!
Bird, you did not examine (?) the case of my greatness, you did not take due account of its nature;
My weakness and my strength you did not consider; yet you spoke inflammatory words!
(95) Once you have really looked into my achievements, you will humble yourself exceedingly!
Now your speech contains grave errors; you have not thought about it!
I, I am Fish; I deliver altogether the abundance of the pure shrine,
Even to the great offerings to lustrous Ekur — I stand proudly with my head raised high!
Just like Ashnan I am here to satisfy the hunger of the Land — I am her aide!
(100) And therefore people pay attention to me, they keep their eyes upon me!
As at the harvest festival, they always rejoice over me, and take care of me!
Bird, whatever great deeds you may have done, I will teach you their pretense!
The harshness and evil speech you held, I shall hand back to you!”
Thereupon Fish conceived an evil plot against Bird.
(105) Silently, furtively, it slithered alongside
And when Bird arose from its nest to fetch food for its young
Fish searched for the most discreet of the silent places.
Its well–built nest, made from brushwood it made into a derelict house;
Its well–built house it destroyed, tore down the storeroom;
(110) The eggs it had laid it smashed, and threw them into the sea.
Thus did Fish strike at Bird — and then fled into the waters.
Then came Bird, lion–faced, and with an eagle’s talons,
Winging towards its nest. It stops in mid-flight;
Like a hurricane whirling in the midst of heaven, it circles in the sky;
(115) Bird, looking about for its nest spreads open wings and legs.
Its well–built nest, made from brushwood, it now tramples over it as if it were the broad plain.
Its mouth cries out in the midst of heaven as does the priestess!
Bird now seeks around for Fish, searching the marshes;
Bird peers into the river, watches it closely.
(120) As if snatching into the water, it stretched out its legs,
Clasped its claws? together and did not open them again.
Thus Bird took vengeance.
Again did Bird reply to Fish:
“Utter fool, dumb one, muddle–headed one, Fish, you are out of your mind!
(125) Those who circle the quay — their mouths never eat enough; you spend your day with fodder!
Swine, rascal, gorging yourself upon your own dung, freak?!
You are like a watchman living on top (?) of a house, dripping (?) by itself!
Fish, you kindled something like fire against me, you planted henbane;
Your stupidity caused devastation; you have sprinkled your hands with blood!
(130) Your arrogant heart, by its own deeds, will destroy itself!
But I, I am Bird, flying in heaven and walking upon earth;
Wherever I travel, I am there for the joy of everyone under the sky;
[…] o Fish, the greatest princes gave them.
[…] New Year (?) […] my […] it is the first born young; […] to […] of Enlil.
(135) […] walks with uplifted head;
[…] … until distant days.
[…] … he speaks to the multitudes.
[How] can you not recognize my pre–eminence? Bow your neck to the ground!”
Thus again Bird had hurled insults at Fish.
(140) Then did Fish shout at Bird, looking at it in anger:
“Let not words …! Our judge should take it up?!
To our judge and umpire, to Enki, let us take our case!”
And so the two of them, jostling and continuing the evil quarrel,
In order to establish, the one over the other, his pre-eminence,
(145) In … Eridu (they?) registered the litigation, and, having performed the argumentation,
[…] confused (?), as if by their (own) noise,
[…] crept (before him) like …;
[From Shulgi ], son of Enlil,
(149) […] peace, they request a verdict.
(150) [“You (Enki), whose] speech is true — Please, your ear to my words!
I had placed [my nest in the marshes]; eggs had been laid.
[Food (?) of the marshes (?)] was given for free, was put there for their sustenance.
[After Fish] had set up [the quarrel (?)]
[…] it has destroyed my house;
(155) [My well–built nest] made from brushwood he made into a derelict house;
[My well–built house he destroy]ed, my storeroom he tore down;
[The eggs I laid he] smashed and threw them into the sea.
[O judge …] examine my speech, return my verdict!”
[Before (?) the judge who was (?)] looking closely into [the matter, he] prostrated himself to the ground.
(160) Now [their judge] announces (?) the word;
[He whose word is] great, spoke from the heart
[“…] I am accepting their appeal!”
[The contestants,] quarrelling, come along.
Like one passing (?) a […], (one) came out supreme.
(165) Like goring [oxen (?)] they jostled each other.
“[Whatever word you speak], let it be favorable to me!
You know the rules and ordinances of the broad earth!
When you search for the right decision, you are immensely wise in knowing the (right) word for that!”
He answered Bird and Fish
(170) “To stand in the Ekur is fitting for Bird, its voice is sweet [indeed].
At Enlil’s holy table, Bird should take precedence over you […]!
In the temple of all the great gods (Bird’s) voice is pleasing;
The Anunna–gods rejoice in its voice.
It is suitable for the banquets in the great dining hall of the gods;
(175) It [provides] good cheer in Shulgi’s palace.
It should stand with raised head, in the [house] of Shulgi, son of Enlil!”
King Shulgi […]
[…]
Fish […]
(180) Thereupon […] …21
(190) In the dispute held by Bird and Fish,
Because Bird was victorious over Fish,
Father Enki be praised!
REFERENCES
Attinger 1993:49–50; Kramer 1964; Krispijn 1993:131–148; Lambert 1960; Vanstiphout 1991c; 1992a.
THE DISPUTATION BETWEEN SUMMER AND WINTER (1.183)
H. L. J. Vanstiphout
As far as we know, this altercation between the two most natural opposites imaginable, was the longest of all Sumerian disputations. But it is in a much worse state of preservation than the previous three pieces.2 Here also there is a mixture of generic features: the text starts with a long list of “destinies” or proprieties allotted to the contestants by the gods. It is obvious from the start that basically the two contestants are equal in value, and that the quarrel can only start because of unwarranted jealousy (indeed, it starts on a point of procedure, or literally precedence). The dispute as such remains unresolved, since the verdict insists that they are complementary and should remain so. Yet the matter is resolved on a point of simple justice: Winter (Enten) ought not to be jealous of Summer (Emesh), but Summer should not be allowed to profit from Winter’s efforts. So the main feature of this piece is that it is about undue rivalry resolved.
(1) The Lord lifted his head in pride, bountiful days arrived.
Heaven and earth he regulated, and the population spread wide;
Enlil, like a mighty bull, placed his feet on the earth.
To make bountiful times of abundance,
(5) To make manifest … nights of splendor,
To make legumes grow, to make wheat spread out,
To make the carp–flood appear regularly at the quays,
To make the people lengthen their days in abundance,
To make Emesh bind the dykes of heaven,
(10) To make Enten show regularly the abundant waters at the quays,
— This was what Enlil, king of the Mountainland, wanted to achieve.
With the great Hursag–hill he copulated, yes, gave that mountain her share;
He thus made her pregnant with Emesh and Enten, welfare and life of the Nation;
Enlil, when he copulated, roared like a bull;
(15) Hursag spent the day at that place, and at night she opened her loins.
Emesh and Enten she bore as (smoothly as with) princely oil;
As great bulls (s)he made them eat pure plants in the enclosures of the hills;
(S)he reared them in the mountain meadows.
Then Enlil cast the lots for Emesh and Enten
(20) To Emesh the founding of settlements;
The bringing in of abundant harvests to great mountain Enlil;
To send out laborers to the great fields; to make settle the ox on the acre.
To Enten abundance, the early flooding, the bounty and life of the Nation;
The placing of wheat on the fruitful acres; to gather in everything.
(25) This Enlil decided for Emesh and Enten as their destiny.
Enten, from the brink of the hill country
Took in hand the early flooding, bounty and life of the Nation.
He set his foot upon Tigris and Euphrates like a big bull,
And let them free upon the fruitful fields of Enlil.
(30) The sea he fashioned (into) ….
Enten (also) brought forth.…
The bull (he) surrounded with reeds both young and old (…).
Ninurta, Enlil ’s heroic son,
Took away the water from the great fields
(35–45 broken)
(46) The ox shakes its head in the yoke.
(47–49 broken)
(50) … the goat (bore) kids.
Cows and calves he made teem; he gathered ghee and milk;
In the high steppe deer and buck rejoice.
The birds of heaven build their nests all over.
The fish of the swamps lay their eggs in the reed thickets.
(55) In the orchards honey and wine are dripping onto the ground;
The orchards are in full fruit.
The gardens grow legumes and sprout vegetables.
The grain becomes heavy in the furrow
Ashnan appears as a fair young maid;
(60) And thus did the Harvest, the great feast of Enlil, raise its head towards heaven.
Emesh made a barn; he widened sheepfold and stall;
He added to the abundance in the great fields;
And all the produce he put aside.…
The abundant harvest he brought into the estate, he gathered the heaps of grain.
(65) He founded cities and villages; he built the temple of the Nation.
He caused the House of the gods to appear like a hill on a pure place.
The House–of–Life, holy abode of kingship, fit for the lofty dais,
He founded in abundance for great mountain Enlil.
Emesh, heroic son of Enlil,
(70) Then decided to bring offerings to the House-of-Life, Enlil’s abode.
Wild animals, cattle and sheep of the hill country,
Wild rams, deer and buck, all fully grown,
Mountain sheep, noble sheep, fat–tailed sheep he brought.
Pigs grown fat in the midst of the reed thicket, porcupine and tortoise,
(75) Birds on their nest, brooding their eggs.
All harvest produce, flour and malt for mixing, ghee and milk from sheepfold and stall;
Rye, egg–beans, small beans, large beans in basketfuls;
Onions which took sweetness when in their furrows, garlic and shallots,
Beet, cress, ….
(80–89 broken)
(90) Enten, proud son of Enlil,
(91 broken)
(92) For the sheep which is being disputed — it is fattened but at its side there is a scorpion
(93–98 broken)
The fattened Bibra-bird, the Esig-bird, the Shurra-bird and the Ushtur-bird,
(100) The carp … which Enlil made grow up;
The pomegranates which he gathered …;
Large beets, a large GUG–loaf cut, garlic cut with the cleaver;
Enten himself carried the offerings he brought.
Emesh, heroic son of Enlil
(105) Then decided to bring offerings to the House-of-Life, Enlil’s abode
Bucks and lambs of the mountain–sheep.
Emesh and Enten drove together the gift of young cattle;
The two of them, like butting bulls they reared themselves for battle.
Enten, because of his tired arms and shoulders
(110) From all the grain grown heavy in the furrow which he had been watering,
Turned from them as (from) a stranger; he did not want to draw near.
Anger overcame Enten, and he started a quarrel with Emesh.
“Emesh, my brother, do not praise yourself!
Whatever you carry to the Palace as a gift
(115) Has not been made through your effort – Do not brag!
As if you yourself had done the hard work;
As if you yourself had done the farming work;
As if your own water–inspection at the early flood had brought life to the Nation;
As if you yourself had caused grain to appear on the fields with the dew from the skies —
(120) You are about to enter the Palace in this way with my efforts!
As if you yourself had brought … the wild animals, the cattle and sheep from the hill country”;
(122–139 broken; 140–152 very fragmentary)
Thus had Enten then insulted Emesh.
Emesh, the hero whom one does not …, he searched for rude insults;
(155) On harvest day he trusted in his heart, he left;
Like a mighty bull, he ate hay, and raised his head.
Emesh thereupon replied to Enten:
“Enten, do stay at the side of the oven …; when … their words;
You should not place these heavy insults (against one?) who does not lead a sitting life;
(160) For carrying out the task, with its difficulties, of furrowing the Nation
You do not raise the cry in the GUNE, you do not inspect the estate.
The young scribe is absent, which is an abomination; no grass is pulled out for the bed.
The singer does not embellish the banquet; at its side.…
Enten, do not speak insults; to the steppe.…
(165) I shall reveal my force to the estate, so that even you may perceive it!
In my working tour of seven months in a year
… does not whisper softly to.…
(168–171 broken)
(173) Enten, do not … noise.…
When you have taken away the water from the fields, when the tubs are placed,
(175) When you have made ready the fishing places, and heaped up the fish,
I am Enlil’s great comptroller;
And I harrow the field into a fruitful field!
When the oxen have stopped working the field
When I have put force to the damp earth; when I have fulfilled the necessary assignment,
(180) I do not work for you in the fields and plantations early in the season.
The early grain will bend its neck in the hollow of the furrow; but no one makes a fence.
Your plowboy, wherever he walks the ox, will not make the ox angry with me.”
(183–188 fragmentary)
Enten thereupon replied to Emesh:
(190) “Emesh, the mule grazing on the harvest–field makes an ear–splitting noise!
(191 broken)
The harvest ox which chafes its neck at the yoke-block shakes its head!
The ale–seller going down to the harvest field is holding the jug!
The flour–roaster …
(195) The laborer though constantly boasting does not know the extent of the field!
Emesh, my brother, after you have boasted with my exertions,
At the end of the year the grain is brought in to the estate, and the granaries are filled up.
After you have brought the excess, and your Bardul and your Niglam garments are woven,
An axe … to your strength?.…
(200) Emesh, opening up the field, do not forget the wet earth!
(201–207 broken)
(208) Reed–cutter about to prune with the Barhuda, split the grown reed!
(209 broken)
(210) Potter, dig up clay, light the fire, carry faggots, and … the pot!
Weaver, weave your Bardul garment with the strength? of your Aktum cloth!
Brewer, bake beer bread at the harvest place as is your assignment!
… let Emesh leave!
… he threw.…
(215) Men wear boots and sandals.…
Emesh, my brother, as long as you go with? my own tour of duty,
Small and great order you about; your string is never cut.
Though you have gathered all things in the Nation, and filled the granaries,
It is with my effort of your capital?, I am completely the rightful owner!
(220) When the clouds brought abundance down from the skies,
And the water for the first greening had descended from the hillsides;
When the new grain, being added to the old grain, is put in the granary;
The good farmer, having seen to his fields, shouts for joy,
Harnesses his carrier donkeys, and sets out proudly for the city.
(225) My brother, when you have put away the holy plow in the barn,
The granary, all that you have gathered, you make roar like fire?;
You sit down to plentiful food and drink;
You obtain the choicest goods from the Nation.
The king named by Nanna, son of Enlil,
(230) Ibbi-Sîn,, when you have clothed him with the Shutur and the Hursag16 garments,
Adorned him with the Bardul and the Niglam garments,
When you have made a perfect feast for the gods,
The Anuna clothe their holy bodies with a garment.
And in his House–of–Life, the holy abode of kingship founded by An,
(235) When you have prepared at that place of heart’s content a succulent banquet;
With tambourine, drum, trumpet and lute playing for him as by themselves,
And Tigi and Zamzam, they who gladden your heart, while away the day,
It is I who has made the plentiful wine, who delivers lots of drink;
I who perfects the garments with fine oil;
(240) I who brings out the […], the Shutur and the Aktum cloths!
In order to safeguard? them for Emesh, the first in Sumer, at the heavy.…
That resting place in the bosom of the Blackheads, where they were put away,
Moths have destroyed the blankets, eaten the Aktum carpet for you!
(244–253 fragmentary; 254–256 broken)
(257) The gardener does not know how to grow purslain, your basket for cut (vegetables) …;
You, how can you compare with me, while seeking a roof for resting?”
Thus had Enten then insulted Emesh.
(260) Emesh, heroic son of Enlil
Was convinced of his own power, and trusted in his heart.
To the insults Enten had spoken to him
It was as if he acted friendly.
Emesh thereupon replied to Enten:
(265) “Enten, do not yourself praise your overriding force after you have explained your importance!
In the city I shall speak about your abode, which I shall always protect?;
You may seem a chief, but you are a helpless one.
Your faggot is for brazier, hearth and oven,
So shepherd’s boy and shepherd with your heavy sheep
(270) The helpless ones, from brazier to oven, from oven to brazier
They run about like sheep in your.…
In sunshine you lay your plans …;
But now in the city teeth are chattering because of you.
When the day is only half, nobody walks the streets.
(275) The servant, glad of his oven, (remains) in the house till the sun sets.
The maid, not employed in the flooded fields,passes the day with (making?) garments;
In the field, which Enten does not work,
Where no furrows have been cut,
Its grain, not being put in its wholesome place, is taken away by the fat crow;
(280) The produce of the vegetable cutter — of these vegetables the market–price is bad;
Bearing only old reeds, the reed–bearers get cuts in their bare feet.
Do not speak about overriding power — I will make known its shape and essence!”
Emesh thus replied to Enten.
Then … Sumer in abundance,
(285) Both of them stretch their legs, stand up as for a fight.
(285a) Enten … a word … raises his head:
“Father Enki, you gave me the control of the watership, you brought me the water of abundance!
(287–290 fragmentary)
The grain grew heavy in the furrows.
(292–295 broken)
(296) Enten admires the heart of your … in words.”
Emesh collects everything in his head, and calms down.
Emesh speaks respectfully to Enlil:
“Enlil, your judgment is overpowering, your word is the highest.
(300) Your verdict cannot be altered – who could change it?
Brother has started a quarrel with brother, but now they are calm again.
As long as you enter the palace the people will speak their awe.
When you live there, I shall not mock anything, but praise everything.”
Enlil replies to Emesh and Enten:
(305) “Of the life–giving waters from the midst of the mountains, Enten is the director.
The farmer of the gods, who gathers everything.
Emesh, my son, how can you compare with Enten, your brother?”
Enlil — the gist of his mighty word is perfect;
The verdict he pronounced cannot be altered — who could change it?
(310) Emesh bowed before Enten, said prayers to him.
In his house he prepared beer and wine for him.
At its side they pass the day with a succulent banquet.
Emesh gives gold and silver to Enten;
In brotherly love and friendship they will alternate
(315) And they shall comfort their minds by speaking sweet words, and so gratify each other.
In the disputation between Emesh and Enten
Enten, the farmer of the gods, was greater than Emesh;
Therefore great mountain Enlil be praised.
REFERENCES
Bottéro and Kramer 1989; Civil 1994; Cooper 1989:87–89; van Dijk 1957b; Vanstiphout 1987b:15–16; 1992a.
6. SCHOOL DIALOGUES
This section has been included for a very special reason. The Scriptural parallels here might be are few in number, and inherently vacuous, if not nugatory. And that is precisely the point: the rich ‘school literature’ in Sumerian from Old Babylonian Mesopotamia shows a striking and very meaningful contrast between the two cultures. In the Mesopotamian case the perception, ordering and evaluation of conscious culture is governed by an organized system of education in the scribal school, or Eduba, as is shown by its structure, its curriculum, and its products. What is more, in a significant number of compositions they have laid down — though mostly in a jocular vein — their attitudes towards this system, including that of intellectual freedom, with its consequent cynicism, within the closed group of literati. This unexpectedly ‘modern’ idea is absent from the neighboring cultures, and only represented in a much watered down version in Mesopotamia itself after the Kassite period. The only meaningful point(s) of comparison would be some periods in Egyptian cultural history. And this is all the more reason for including, by way of stark contrast, some samples in this collection. The three pieces have been chosen because each of them highlights a different aspect, not only of the school, but of the internal and external implications of being a “scholar”; furthermore, they present a marked gradation in subject matter and seriousness for the pupils involved.
THE DIALOGUE BETWEEN TWO SCRIBES (1.184)
H. L. J. Vanstiphout
This provisionally fragmentary composition focuses on the competition between two scribes, one being more advanced than the other, and using his seniority to bully and insult the younger one — after which the teacher, apparently a stickler for school tradition, takes the side of the senior student (the “Big Brother”). But in the meantime we learn a number of practical and methodological details about schooling, its aims and its eventual rewards. The two opponents in this quarrel are identified by name. And the piece cleverly takes over some of the structural features of a poetical disputation.2
(GIRINE–ISAG)
(1) “Well fellow student, what shall we write today on the back of our tablet?”
(ENKI–MANSUM)
“Today we will not even write a single word from our lesson!”
(GIRINE–ISAG)
“But then surely the teacher will know and be angry with us because of you!
What will we say to him?”
(ENKI–MANSUM)
(5) “Come now, I shall write what I want! I will set the task!”
(GIRINE–ISAG)
“If you set the task, I am not your ‘big brother’!
Why do you encroach on my status of ‘big brother’?
I have become excellent in the scribal art; I have fulfilled the function of ‘big brother’ to perfection!
You are slow of understanding and hard of hearing; you are but a novice in the school!
(10) You are deaf to the scribal art, and silent in Sumerian!
Your hand is crippled; it is unfit for the writing reed
And unfit for the clay; (your) hand cannot keep up with the mouth.
And you would be a scribe like me?”
(ENKI–MANSUM)
“[Why should I] not be a scribe like you?”
(15–18 lost or fragmentary)
(GIRINE–ISAG)
“You wrote a tablet, but you cannot grasp its meaning.
(20) You wrote a letter, but that is the limit for you!
Go to divide a plot, and you are not able to divide the plot;
Go to apportion a field, and you cannot even hold the tape and rod properly.
The field pegs you are unable to place; you cannot figure out its shape,
So that when wronged men have a quarrel you are not able to bring peace,
(25) But you allow brother to attack brother.
Among the scribes, you (alone) are unfit for the clay.
What are you fit for? Can anybody [tell] us?”
(ENKI–MANSUM)
“Why should I be good for nothing?
When I go to divide a plot, I can divide it;
(30) When I go to apportion a field, I can apportion the pieces,
So that when wronged men have a quarrel, I soothe their hearts and […].
Brother will be at peace with brother, the (ir) hearts […].”
(33–58 lost or fragmentary)
(GIRINE–ISAG) (?)
“As to subtracting and adding the daily quota of the weaving girls,
(60) And the finished order of the apprentice smith of his master — I know its procedure.
My father speaks Sumerian; I am the son of a scribe;
But you are the son of a vile one, a barbarian.
You cannot shape a tablet, nor knead an exercise tablet.
You cannot even write your own name; the clay is not suited to your hand.
(65) Stop hacking away! Is it a hoe you are wielding?
Clever fool, cover your ears, cover them!
Do you pretend to speak Sumerian as I do?”
(ENKI–MANSUM) (?)
“Why do you keep repeating to me ‘cover your ears, cover them?’ ”
(68–133 lost or fragmentary)
“Why do you act like this?
(135) Why do you push one another, and hurl insults at one another?
You raise a clamor in the school!
I have been teaching Sumerian as required,”
(138–139 fragmentary)
(140) “Even in those long gone days, when you were still beaten and …,
No shouting reached me (like this)!
Why, to him who is your ‘big brother,’
Who knows more about the scribal art than you,
Why have you spoken to him so arrogantly,
(145) And cursed and insulted him?”
The teacher, who knew about everything
Frowned sternly (saying) “Do as you wish!”
(GIRINE–ISAG?)
“If I could really do as I wished,
Then a fellow acting like you, attacking his ‘big brother,’
(150) After I had given him 60 strokes with the cane,
Put his feet in fetters,
Confined him to the house so that he cannot go out for two months,
Your (his!) crime would certainly not yet have been expiated!”
As from this day, their eyes keep staring (in hatred).
(155) The one acts meanly towards the other.
Brother fights with brother, takes him on.
Since between the quarreling Enki–Mansum and Girine–Isag, both of them,
The teacher will give the verdict,
Praise be to Nisaba!
THE DIALOGUE BETWEEN A SUPERVISOR AND A SCRIBE (1.185)
H. L. J. Vanstiphout
This piece is not unlike the preceding one in that it consists of an altercation between a senior and a junior member of the Eduba. Still, the relationship is subtly different: the senior one is not just a more mature student, but a regular supervisor (an UGULA). He submits the pupil, who is obviously aspiring to higher things at this moment, to a kind of examination which deals not only with the capabilities ensuing from the pupil’s schooling, but also with his moral stance within the Eduba system. If one were to posit a background or location in reality, the examination could represent a test of Sumerian style and rhetoric. The final part consists of a eulogy of the pupil, who has apparently done well. There is no edition as yet; this translation is based upon the published material, with the proviso that unpublished material shows the existence of another and appreciably longer version.
(Supervisor)
(1) “(Old) schoolboy, come here, come to me quickly!
What my teacher taught me, I will teach you.
Like you, I was once a youth, who had a big brother.
[The teacher] selected me from the other men, and assigned me a task.
(5) Like the trembling reed I trembled, but I applied myself to the work.
The [word] of my master I did not forget; I did not …
My big brother was delighted with my (work at the) assignation.
My humility made him so happy that he spoke …
Whatever I was ordered to do, I did; and everything was always in its place.
(10) From his counsels only a fool would deviate.
He guided my hand properly on the clay, and kept me on the straight line.
He opened my mouth to all the words; he showed me the (wisest) counsels.
He filled my eyes with the rules of him who correctly fulfills the assignment.
Zeal is the lot of the assignee; time–wasting is a shame.
(15) He who tarries (on his way) to the place of work neglects his duty.
One should not exalt one’s knowledge, but should control one’s speech.
When one exalts one’s knowledge in splendor, people raise their eyes in astonishment.
Do not idle away the day! Do not rest in the evening! Go to work this moment!
[Neither graduate nor] freshman may give himself over to levity!
(20) … your words must be serious.
Again, do not put your trust in your own unopened eyes
Thus you would greatly scorn obedience, which is the honor of humanity.
[A modest man] has a peaceful heart; his sins are absolved.
A poor man’s gift is honorable to all minds.
(25) Even he who has nothing still kneels and holds the sacrificial kid to his breast
Bowing to the powers that be, and containing myself — that is what gratifies me!
These things my teacher taught me, I recited them to you; do not scorn them!
Pay attention; take these thing to heart; this will be to your profit.”
The learned scribe respectfully answered his master:
(Scribe)
(30) “Now you have recited, incantation–like, I shall give you the response thereto.
And to your bullish “sweet chant” its rebuttal.
You shall not turn me into a know–nothing; I shall answer but once.
Once a puppy, my eyes are wide open now, I act with humanity.
So why is it that you keep setting up rules for me, as if I were a shirker?
(35) Those who hear your words will revile me!
Whatever you showed me from the scribal art has been given back to you!
You appointed me over your household; you cannot accuse me of a single instance of neglect.
I always assigned the tasks of the slave girls, the slaves and other personnel of your household.
I soothed their hearts with rations of food, clothing and oil.
(40) I assigned the order of their tasks. It is said “Do not pursue the servant in the house of the master!”
But every morning I did — I followed them like sheep.
You ordered the preparations for the offerings; and on the same day I performed them for you.
I prepared the sheep and the banquets expertly, so that your god was overjoyed.
The day when the ship of your god arrived it was greeted with great respect.
(45) You ordered me to the edge of the field; the work force was already toiling there.
In the contest of labor there was no rest, night or day.
The journeymen, sons of the plowmen, were strongest.
I brought back quality to your field; but the people admire [you!]
However great the assignment for the oxen, I always brought in more; their burden […]
(50) Since my youth you have watched me, and inspected my ways.
I am polished like fine metal; a better product [there is not?]
I do not use big words, as is your mistake; I wait upon you.
Belittling oneself is what causes people to be ignored; therefore I want to make (my true worth?) apparent for you: learn this!”
(Supervisor)
“Earlier, you were but a child. Now, hold up your head!
(55) Your hands were turned to the grown–ups; now fulfill (your own) task!
Accept this prayer of blessing; [a good?] fate [I will proclaim?]
Your counsels have penetrated my body as if I had taken milk and oil.
[Your] unceasing service […]
May the good results thereof be regular; the bad results […]
(60) May the teachers, these wise men, encourage you (further).
In this house, that foremost place, may […]
Your name may be elected with honor; its power and excellence […]
The cattlemen may [fight for?] for your pleasurable songs;
I myself want to fight for your pleasurable song; I want to […]
(65) The teacher with joyous heart will bless you.
You are a young man who listened to my words; my heart is glad.
The worthiness of Nisaba which the teacher has placed in your hands
(Makes you) into the good hand of Nisaba; [lift up?] your head to heaven!
Let this become (your) fate with a joyous heart; let downheartedness [lift?].
(70) The Eduba, the place of all wisdom there is […]
THE DIALOGUE BETWEEN AN EXAMINER AND A STUDENT (1.186)
H. L. J. Vanstiphout
In this composition we again have a dialogue, but now it takes the form of a viva voce examination. One might say that it looks like a final examination, wherein the student may be said to try for graduation. Apparently it takes place before an external examiner: the student keeps referring to his teacher. In a second part, not translated here, the piece takes on the format of a flyting — which in various guises can also be found in other, related compositions. There is a very good edition of the first part of the text.
(Examiner and Student)
(1) “Young man, [are you a student?” — “Yes, I am a student.”]
(Examiner)
“If you are a student
Do you know Sumerian?”
(Student)
“Yes, I can speak Sumerian.”
(Examiner)
(5) “You are so young; how is it you can speak so well?”
(Student)
“I have listened constantly to the words of my teacher;
So I can answer you.”
(Examiner)
“All right, you may be able to answer me, but what do you write?”
(Student)
“If you would just examine what I write!
(10) [The time] I still have to spend in school is less than three months.
The [texts] in Sumerian and Akkadian, from A–A ME–ME
[To …] I can read and write.
All lines from dINANA-TEŠ2
Till the ‘beings of the plain’ at the end/beginning of LU2-šu I wrote.
(15) I can show you my signs,
Their writing and their interpretation; and this is how I pronounce them.”
(Examiner)
“Right, follow me!
I will not give you things that are too complicated.”
(Student)
“Even if I am assigned LU2=šu on an exercise tablet
(20) I can give the 600 LU2 entries in their correct sequence.
The schedule of my schooling was like this:
My holidays were three every month;
Various feasts averaged three per month;
With all that, there were 24 days per month
(25) That I spent in school. But this time never seemed long.
In a single day the teacher would give me the same pensum four times.
In the final reckoning, what I know of the scribal art will not be taken away!
So now I am master of the meaning of tablets, of mathematics, of budgeting,
Of the whole scribal art, of the disposition of lines, of evading omissions, of…
(30) My teacher approved (my) beautiful speech.
The companionship (in the school) was a joyful thing.
I know my scribal art perfectly;
Nothing flusters me.
My teacher had to show me a sign only once,
(35) And I could add several from memory.
Having been in school for the required period,
I am now an expert in Sumerian, in the scribal art, in interpretation, and in budgeting.
I can even speak Sumerian.”
(Examiner)
“That may be so, but the sense of the Sumerian is hidden from you!”
(Student)
(40) “I desire to start writing tablets (professionally);
Tablets of one measure of grain till those of 600 measures;
Tablets of one shekel till those of twenty minas;
Also any marriage contracts they may bring;
And partnership contracts — I can specify verified weights up to a talent,
(45) And also deeds for the sale of houses, gardens, slaves,
Financial guarantees, field hire contracts, …
Palm growing contracts, …
Adoption contracts — all those I can draw up.”
(49–55 fragmentary)
(Examiner? Student?)
“We are of the same birth, we are ….
He and I have [compared] our hand tablets
Both have drawn up budgets …
And regarding the budget …
(60) The budget …
He who cannot understand the accounts like scribes.…
About the tablets’ meaning, the scribal art, the signs with difficult readings,
Let them have a fight.
If he wins, he shall take whatever is mine;
(65) But if I win, what shall I get?”
(66–69 fragmentary)
(70) “We will shout insults at one another!
One will exchange insults with the other!”
REFERENCES
Civil 1985; Gadd 1956; Römer 1977; 1988; Sjöberg 1975; Van Dijk 1953; Vanstiphout 1979; 1996; Waetzoldt 1986; 1988; 1989.
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